Trends future

Trends in industry, which reinforce the importance of measurement of polymer reactor process control, include the increasing emphasis by customers on receiving 

M magnitude of step-change in input variable various 

2 refers to surface, doivnstream, in throat, or outlet of tank  

Chapter 4 MeS-, Steuer-und Regelungstechnik , Handbuch der Technischen Polymerchemie, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1993. 

Benedict, Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3rd ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1984. 

1 Future brewery designs and the impact on water and energy recovery 

2 Developments in nanotechnology to provide antimicrobial surfaces and materials 

The application of silver nanoparticle technology as a future antimicrobial material is an interesting area of research. Silver nanoparticles have been shown to prevent the development and establishment of biofilms (Palanisamy et al., 2014). This in principle would be an effective strategy to prevent the growth of undesirable microorganisms. The application of silver nanoparticle technology seems ideal for medical equipment. 

The future is by no means gloomy. Efficiency and sustainability are no longer restricted to academic circles. There is a drive to work on alternate energy sources and go green. The changes in the public mindset are essentially mirrored by what has happened in the research realm, and have sparked the major revisions of the chapters in this book. 

In this chapter, we try to offer a glimpse of what the future of the energy and chemical industries may hold and try to point out some of the technological hurdles that have to be overcome to reach the goal, a sustainable society. We point out that we have not discussed nuclear power industries and do not know what role they will play in the future, but we foresee an increased use of nuclear power, perhaps temporary or longer term. 

The chemical industry may be poised for changes as well, and different initiatives are in the research stage. The methods of evaluating technological options by reexamining value and financial decisions may also change which options will seem attractive. 

Further trends in the development of RPVs for third-generation reactors can be seen in Table 3.6, where comparison of three different designs is given. The following trends can be seen  

RPV AP 1000 Westinghouse (USA) EPR AREVA (France) ASE 92 Atomstroyexport (Russian Federation) 

Material A-508 Grade 3 Class 1 A-533-B 16 MND 5 15Kh2NMFA 15Kh2NMFAA 15Kh2NMFA Class 1 

Applied Code ASME, Section III RCC-M (ASME) PNAE-G, GOST 

Irradiation Embrittlement of Reactor Pressure Vessels (RPVs) 

Future trends are expected to focus on the development of multirespon-sive polymers that combine a LCST phase transition with another response, such as redox, pH or the presence of certain analytes. As such, the phase transition can be induced isothermally by the second response parameter to further broaden the application potential for sensors and biomedical applications. Furthermore, the development of novel polymers with UCST behavior will be an important research topic for the coming years as well as the development of applications of UCST polymers. Finally, I am convinced that the application potential of both LCST and UCST polymers for smart materials will be significantly broadened in the near future. 

Kozlowski, A. Harris, J. M. and Tjerneld, F. (1994) Application of temperature-induced phase partitioning at ambient temperature for enzyme purification, J Chromatography A, 659,289-298, doi 10.1385/1-59259-028-4 281. Aoi, K. and Okada, M. (1996) Polymerization of oxazolines. Prog Polym Sci, 21, 151-208. 

Aoshima, S. and Kanaoka, S. (2008) Synthesis of stimuli-responsive polymers by living polymerization Poly(Ar-isopropylacrylamide) and poly(vinyl ether)s, Adv Polym Sci, 210,169-208, doi 10.1007/12 2007 120. 

Aoshima, S., Oda, H. and Kobayashi, E. (1992) Synthesis of thermally-induced phase separating polymer with well-defined polymer structure by living cationic polymerization. I. Synthesis of poly(vinyl ether)s with oxyethylene units in the pendant and its phase separation behavior in aqueous solution, / PoZym Sci Part A Polym Chem, 30,2407-2413, doi 10.1002/pola.l992.080301115. 

Aseyev, V. O., Tenhu, H. and Winnik, F. M. (2006) Temperature dependence of the colloidal stability of neutral amphiphilic polymers in water, Adv Polym Sci, 196, 1-85, doi 10.1007/12 052. 

It is clear that the future has much uncertainty, while at the same time it offers much promise. It appears that there will be many potential changes that will put new demands on extraction solvents. Solvents that are more environmentally friendly, are nontoxic to plants, workers, and consumers, have speeialized properties, have high solvent power at low temperatures (are easy to desolventize), etc., may have wider potential use in conventional extraction as well as speeialized niehe markets. 

1 Technology and Solvents for Extracting Oilseeds and Non-petroleum Oils, P. J. Wan and P. J. Wakelyn, 

8 Occupational Health and Safety Administration Field Operations Manual, Chapter FV Violations, C. Health Standards Violations, (OSHA Instruction 2.45B CH-4, Dec.l3, 1993), The Bureau of National Affairs, Washington, DC, 1994, pp. 77 2513-18. 

9 Occupational Health and Safety Administration Technical Manual, Section 1- Sampling, Measurement Methods, and Instruments, Chapter 1 -Personal Sampling for Air Contaminants, Appendix 1 1-6. Sampling and Analytical Errors (SAEs) (Issued by OSHA Instruction TED 1.15, September 22, 1995 amended by OSHA Instmction TED 1.15 CH-1, May 24,1996). 

It is the authors belief that in the near future new industrial applications of non-thermal technologies to produce healthy, fresh-like and natural foods in a sustainable manner will become common in the market place. 

For the most part, future trends will be found in liazard accident prevention, not liazard analysis. To help promote liazard accident prevention, companies should start employee-training programs. These programs should be designed to alert staff and employees about tlie liazards tliey are exposed to on tlie job. Training should also cover company safety policies and tlie proper procedures to follow in case an accident does occur. A major avenue to reducing risk will involve source reduction of hazardous materials. Risk education and communication are two other areas tliat will need iniprovemcnt. 

Semiconductor gas sensors will become more and more important in the future. Seeds and needs for them, basic approaches needed and challenges desired are described below as a personal view of the present authors. 

There are subjects of research which are worth challenging in order to progress the innovation of semiconductor gas sensors. Some examples are listed below  

Elucidation of control of water vapor effects Disturbances by water vapor have been a major origin of errors in gas response. Elimination of them upgrades the quality of gas sensing. 

Verification of ultrasensitive gas sensors New frontiers of gas sensor applications often demand that they cope with reducing gases at sub-ppm levels. It is necessary, first, to prove that such high-sensitive sensors can be devised. 

Contact potential-conscious sensor design Gas response of a resistor type sensor seems to be promoted significantly by contact potential if a properly designed composite gas sensing layer is used. 

The ability to perform precise, calibrated digital measurements is a welcome breakthrough for the science and technology of food appearance. As well as a new future for the measurement of appearance properties of three-dimensional materials it will be of great benefit for sensory assessment. Potential benefits include the development of on-screen panelhng and panel manipulation, communication and archiving. Another benefit will be the constraction of improved colour standards for panel use (see Chapter 14). 

In the food business there are many applications for intervention of appearance science - examples are the product itself, consumer expectations, advertising and packaging, marketing. Studies of food colour psychology, folklore and anthropology are available (Davidoff 1991, Hutchings etal. 1996, Meiselman 2000). 

This book will add considerably to cmrently available information on food colorants and conventional colour measurement. A wider look at the philosophy 

ALLISON R I, UHL K (1964). Influence of beer brand identification on taste perception. JMarketing Res 1 36-39. 

AMERINE MAYNARD M, PANGBORN ROSE MARIE, ROESSLER EDWARD B (1965). Principles of sensory evaluation of food. New York Academic Press. 

Risk analysis, like most scientific disciplines is subject to continual evolution. This means that methods and concepts that are in common use today may well become discredited and obsolete in the future. This presents a problem for risk managers because it creates the impression that everything done before was somehow wrong . In fact, most changes are gradual and tend to take effect at 

Common traditional fillers may require a new generation of fillers. Engineered fillers with tunable properties may be one way of improving the performance of particulate composite materials. In the future, the performance of particulate composites may be strongly dependent on the advanced filler system, which is far superior to the conventional fiUer system. 

The authors would like to acknowledge the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) (RU1/814137, PRGS/8044022) and the Universiti Malaysia Pedis (UniMAP), for sponsoring and providing 

Al-Saleh, M.H., Sundararaj, U., 2009. Electromagnetic interference shielding mechanisms of CNT/polymer composites. Carbon 47, 1738—1746. 

Caglar, B., Mutlu, T., Bertran, E., 2011. Optimization of Mn02/verticaUy aligned carbon nanotube composite for supercapacitor application. Journal of Power Sources 196, 5779-5783. 

Synthesis of carbon nanotubes by arc-discharge method. New Diamond and Erontier Carbon Technology 16, 123—138. 

What of the future The organic cereals and baked goods market seems likely to continue its recent rapid growth for some time to come. In parallel with the move to produce more mainstream products, other trends may emerge. 

Soil Association (1999) The Organic Food Farming Report 1999. Soil Association, Bristol. 

Polyesters, polycarbonates and poly(amino acids)s can be synthesized and chemically recycled by novel enzyme-catalyzed polymerization and degradation methods, and these technologies will be realized as a sustainable chemical industry in the near future (Fig. 14.26). Based on these considerations, extensive studies of the biodegradation mechanisms should be further carried out in detail. 

Albertsson A-C, Huang S J (1995), Degradable polymers, recycling, and plastics waste management, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 

Albertsson A-C, Karlsson S (1998), Degradable Polymers , Macromolecular symposia, 130, Weinheim, Wiley-VCH. 

Albertsson A-C, Chiellini E, Feijen J, Scott G, Vert M (1999), Degradability, renewability and recycling - Key functions for future materials , Macromolecular Symposia, 144, Weinheim, Wiley-VCH. 

Chiellini E, Solaro R (2003), Biodegradable Polymers and Plastics, Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers, Woodbury, New York. 

No other polymers have surpassed fluoropoly-mers with respect to chemical resistance, low surface energy, low dielectric constant, and low coefficient of friction. These polymers will most certainly continue to be an indispensable part of world industry for the foreseeable future. The use of fluoropoly-mers is, however, expected to undergo significant changes in the future as legislations become more stringent with respect to safety and environmental emission standards. Specifically, the bars on fugitive emissions and non-intrusive condition assessment will have to be raised. 

In this chapter, industrial and technological future trends and present and future needs are briefly discussed. Fluoropolymers Division of the Society of Plastics Industry is an excellent source of additional information. 

Applications of fluoropolymers are still growing, even decades after the discovery of the first plastic (polytetrafluoroethylene) in this family. The increasing use of fluoropolymers in such dynamic industries as wire and cable insulation, automotive, aerospace, oil and gas recovery, and semiconductor manufacture has led to significant material developments and trends in the last few years. New fluoropolymers have been introduced to the market (amorphous fluoroplastics, modified PTFE, low-temperature fluoroelastomers, and amine-resistant fluo- 

New applications for probiotic delivery will certainly be found. However, it is also likely that the current mainstream vehicles for probiotic consumption, i.e. yogurt-type dairy products and supplements (capsules), will remain the leading carriers of probiotics in the near future. This is not so much a technological issue, given the options of other possible carriers that are available, as discussed. It is, however, a matter of consumer acceptance. 

New strains will likely be introduced into the market. In addition to strains from the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, strains from other genera, such as Pro-pionibacterium and Lactococcus, commonly found in fermented foods, are likely to receive more attention. But strains from new probiotic genera are also likely to emerge, such as butyrate-producing Roseburia and Clostridium, or strains from the anti-inflammatory species F. prausnitzii. 

Furthermore, genetically modified probiotics should be anticipated. Although genetically modified organisms meet resistance in certain parts of the world, they will probably be accepted eventually, provided that they have clear benefits to the user, and they may even target diseases for which there is currently no cure. An example of this is the interleukin-10-producing Lactococcus lactis for treatment of Crohn disease (Braat et al., 2006). In the more distant future, individualised strains and combinations 

Existing health targets, as described above, will be further investigated and either confirmed or refuted for probiotic efficacy. New targets will also certainly emerge. Many of these targets will be indicated by the substantial research efforts towards understanding of the intestinal and other microbiota. The influence of the intestinal microbiota on, for instance, the gut-brain axis may hint at possibilities for probiotics and stress or mental awareness. 

To what extent strains from such new probiotic species can and will be incorporated into fermented foods is uncertain. Likewise, it is uncertain whether these and other new health targets are suitable for fermented foods. What is certain, however, is that the one-strain-suits-all approach that has been common until now is going to change. A single strain is simply not able to perform the varied functions that are required to tackle various health risks the emergence of health benefit-specific strains should be anticipated. Similarly, one could anticipate that more complex mixtures might be more efficacious, as they could provide a multitude of functions to microbiota in disarray. 

For many years into the future there will be a continuing requirement for the large-scale production of ammonia, principally for fertilizer use. The main objectives for commercially sized plants are high efficiency, low capital cost, and high reliability. The trends in plant design to achieve these objectives can be considered on a number of different levels, ranging from broad issues such as choice of feedstock to details of the ammonia converter design. 

Present-day proposals for ammonia plants are predominantly based on natural gas feedstock, although a few plants are naphtha-based. A small minority of current projects are based on partial oxidation of heavy fuel oil, for example, in China. This pattern is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. A changeover to coal-based technology is unlikely in the near future because of the very high capital cost involved. 

Two trends in plant scale are apparent. The first is a continuation of present plant capacities in the range 1000-1750 tons per day. There is unlikely to be a trend to build larger plants as envisaged a few years ago. Although single-stream plants with capacities of over 2000 tons per day are feasible, such large projects are more difficult to finance, and are likely to encounter constraints of feedstock availability and product marketing. 

The second trend in plant scale is to invest in medium-scale plants, typically in the range 400-600 tons per day. Plants of this scale can be more easily matched to limited feedstock supplies or to local markets. Alternatively, they are useful for incremental increases in production capacity. 

In the development of the steam-reforming route to ammonia, for many years there has been a desire to eliminate the steam-reforming furnace for reasons of capital cost, efficiency, and reliability. This technology has now been demonstrated on a commercial scale by ICI with the LCA process. With this process the plant is simplified by the use of a Gas Heated Reformer (GHR) in which the primary reformer receives heat directly from the process gas leaving the secondary reformer. This compact pressurized reformer eliminates the massive furnace structure and the high-pressure steam system of a conventional plant. A pressure swing adsorption 

As discussed in Section 5.5, the formulation and use of bio-derived epoxy resins will represent one of the most important challenges both for the academic world and for industry in the next few years. In particular, all industrial fields where composite materials find application will aim to increase the use of epoxy matrices to reduce the environmental impact and CO2 emissions. A further future development of epoxy resins is related to their use as matrices in composites for dental applications, substituting for methacrylate ones, thanks to their lower shrinkage. 

As discussed in this chapter, epoxy resins can be considered one of the most important classes of thermosetting polymers thanks to their range of useful properties and mainly to their versatility. 

In comparison with other thermosetting polymers, epoxy resins are more expensive but show better mechanical properties, lower shrinkage, and higher resistance to moisture absorption and to corrosive environments. These good physical properties and their durability in service help to provide a favorable cost-performance ratio when compared to other thermoset plastics. 

For these reasons, nowadays epoxy resins find application in several fields, e.g. coatings, electrical and electronic insulation, adhesives and construction, and as matrices for FRP in automotive, nautical, aerospace and civil applications. 

As regard the future trends of utilization of epoxy resins, high-performance coatings, followed by electrical/electronic ones and adhesives, flooring and paving applications, composites and molding products will continue to be their primary application worldwide. Further future developments of epoxy resins are related to their use as matrices of composites for dental applications and for trenchless rehabilitation of existing pipelines. 

Of course, the term proven efficacy is central to any resource investment in this area. Basic information on time and dose responses in humans to complex foods rich in carotenoids (and other phytochemicals) is pitifully small. Much of our information is based upon inadequate databases derived from chemical analysis, in vitro models that have not been properly evaluated or validated, and short-term, high-dose human studies. Future research progress requires much more rigorous debate on the experimental systems employed 

As the workplace continues to become more complex and OSHA finds that higher numbers of workers are killed or injured in different ways than in the past, the emphasis may shift. Homicide is a primary cause of death for younger workers and for females. In recent years NIOSH has carefully studied homicide in the workplace and has produced a number of publications responding to the problem. Fast food merchandisers, taxi and delivery services, and nighttime retailers may be in line for future inspections as workplace homicide continues to become more of a concern for OSHA. An issue left largely untouched by OSHA has been that of highway accidents. Employers continue to lose more employees due to vehicular incidents than any other reason. 

Can safety and health be legislated What are the limitations of safety legislation Where would we be without it  

How do you think the future of safety legislation would be affected by another major occupational disaster of the magnitude of a Monongah mine disaster Do you think passage of new safety and health legislation is still of a reactive nature  

Although safety and health fines have gone up significantly in recent years, do you think it matters how high they are when the likelihood of being inspected is so low Discuss this with people in industry and note their opinions. 

Grimaldi, J. V. and Simonds, R. H. 1989. Safety Management. Homewood, IL Richard D. Irwin. 

Recently, tricomponent spinning systems have been developed to coextrude three different polymers into each fibre. Interestingly, some bi-component cross-sections have been utilised in spunbond fabrics, in which filaments are extruded directly into a non-woven web without forming fibres as an intermediate product. The precision of polymer control to form the cross-section wiU continue to advance. After persistent research. Hills has been able to produce spin packs capable of stuffing hundreds of islands into each fibre cross-section, which enables the production of submicron microfibres. The future thus lies in further reduction of the ultimate denier of the fibres, improved spinning processes with more control, and exploration of more interesting applications for bi-component fibres with varying polymers and processes. 

Richeson and J. E. SpruieU (1990), Preparation, stmctnre, and properties of copolyester-ether elastic filaments,/. Appl. Polym. Sci.,4, 845. 

Salem (2001), Structure Formation in Polymeric Fibers, Carl Hanser Verlag, Mnnchen. 

Tippets (1967), Fiber engineering to meet end use requirement. Textile Res./., 37,524-533 

Clay (nanoscale clay) can be used for the reinforcement of various resin materials and can replace glass fiber reinforcement materials. 

The reinforcement mechanism has yet to be clarified, and therefore, industry/government-academia collaborations will help create new materials. 

Bradbury E M (1965), The structure of the gamma form of polycaproamide (nylon 6) Polymer 6 465 82. 

Fong H (2001), Self-passivation of polymer-layered silicate nanocomposites , Chem. Mater. 13 4123-4129. 

Pomes T D (2001), Nylon 6 nanocomposites the effect of matrix molecular weight . Polymer 42 9929-9940. 

Distillation of the crude acid normally takes places in two stages. The first column removes the low-boiling components such as hydrocarbons and alcohols overhead. Early removal of alcohols is especially important to prevent esterification reactions between them and the product acid. The bottoms from this column are then fed to the final column where pure acid is recovered as the overhead product and catalyst and any heavy ends are removed in the bottoms. In the technical process the reaction temperature lies between 50 and 60 °C and the catalyst concentration should be between 0.1 and 0.2 %. Under these conditions, no peracetic acid is detected at the reactor outlet, thus eliminating an additional peracid decomposition step. In commercial acetaldehyde oxidation, conversion rates above 98 % can be achieved along with selectivities between 93 and 98 %. 

Technical details of the commercially important oxidations of butyraldehydes (to butyric acids), valeraldehydes (to C5 acids), 2-ethylhexanal (to 2-ethylhexanoic acid), etc. are the know-how of the manufacturers and are often disclosed only in the patent literature. 

Due to the corrosive nature of carboxylic acids, the oxidation reactor and associated peripherals must be constructed of corrosion-resistant materials, e. g., suitable stainless steels. As with all radical reactions, the surface to volume ratio of the reactor should be kept to a minimum to minimize radical recombination which always occurs on surfaces. 

Even processes that have been in operation for decades have potential for further developments. For economic reasons, optimization of selectivity and reduction of losses to off-gases and by-products have to be continual efforts, but this often 

Due to increasing environmental problems, the use of metal catalysts will gradually be reduced in the future the reduction in the early use of lead- and chromium-based catalysts is evidence of this. With stricter regulations governing the release of metals, the cost of catalyst recovery and environmental remediation is quickly making noncatalytic processes for the production of carboxylic acids preferable. Coupled with recent advances in the field of biocatalysis, metal-mediated oxidations may give way to alternative processes as we enter a new millennium of chemistry. 

Another important area of research is to investigate the potential application of some organically approved substances for pathogen control. As an example, 

Process and Equipment Integrity—Among the things to be considered here are reliability engineering, materials of construction, fabrication and inspection procedures, installation procedures, preventive main-tainence, process, hardware and systems inspections and testing (prestartup safety review), maintainence procedures, alarm and instrument management, and demolition procedures. 

Incident Investigation—In assessing this element, consideration must be given to major incidents, near-miss reporting, follow-up and resolution, communications, incident recording, and third-party participation as needed. 

Human Factors—Included here are human error assessment, operator/process and operator/equipment interfaces, and administrative controls versus hardware. 

Standards, Codes, and Laws—Core concepts are internal standards, guidelines and practices (past history, flexible performance standards, amendments, and upgrades), and external standards, guidelines, and practices. 

Audits and Corrective Actions—Items considered are process safety audits, maangement system audits and compliance reviews (criteria for intemal/extemal reviews and auditors for external/internal reviews), and resolutions and close-out procedures. 

Banker GS, Anderson NR. Tablets. In Lachman L, Lieberman HA, Kanig JL, eds. The Theory and Practice of Industrial Pharmacy. Bombay Varghese Publishing House, 1986 293-345. 

Ermens H. Pharmaceutical excipients—the past and future. Business Briefing Pharma-generics 2004 1-3. 

York P. Crystal engineering and particle design for the powder compaction process. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 1992 18 677-721. 

Pifferi G, Santoro P, Pedrani M. Quality and functionality of excipients. II Farmaco 1999 54 1-14. 

Bansal AK, Nachaegari SK. High-functionality excipients for solid dosage forms. Business Briefing Pharmagenerics 2002 38-44. 

2 Catalytic MEPs (also referred to as enzyme mimics or plastizyme) 

Since MIPs are highly stable and can be sterilised, they are valuable for use in biotransformation processes (Ramstrom and Mosbach, 1999). The application of MIP in catalytic reaction has been demonstrated with reference to the enzymic condensation of Z-L-aspartic acid with L-phenylalanine methyl ester to give Z-aspartame (Ye et al., 1999). In this study, when the product-imprinted polymer was present, a considerable increase (40%) in product yield was found. 

3 MIP-based sensors and molecularly imprinted sorbent assays 

In the last 10 years, significant advances in fibrous monolithic ceramics have been achieved. A variety of materials in the form of either oxide or nonoxide ceramic for cell and cell boundary have been investigated [1], As a result of these efforts, FMs are now commercially available from the ACR company [28], These FMs are fabricated by a coextrusion process. In addition, the green fiber composite can then be wound, woven, or braided into the shape of the desired component. The applications of these FMs involve solid hot gas containment tubes, rocket nozzles, body armor plates, and so forth. Such commercialization of FMs itself proves that these ceramic composites are the most promising structural components at elevated temperatures. 

Coblenz, W.S. (1988), Fibrous monolithic ceramics and method for production , US Patent 4 772 524. 

Baskaran, S., and Halloran, J.W. (1993), Fibrous monolithic ceramics II, Flexural strength and fracture behavior of the silicon carbide/graphite system , J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 76(9) 2217-2224. 

The authors are grateful to the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation (AGL2009-13361-C02-01 and CSD2007-00063 Consolider Ingenio 2010 FUN-C-FOOD Projects), and the Comu-nidad de Madrid (ALIBIRD P2009/AGR-1469 Project). 

Amezqueta, S., Gonzalez-Penas, E., Murillo-Arbizu, M., and Lopez de Cerain, A. (2009). 

Merida, J., and Medina, M. (1997). Changes in phenolic compounds and browning during biological aging of sherry wine.. Agric. Food Chem. 45,1682-1685. 

Angeles Pozo-Bayon and M. Victoria Moreno-Arribas 

Bayonove, C., Baumes, R., Crouzet, J., and Gu.nata, Z. (2000).(Claude Flanzy, Coordinator) In In Enologia Fundamentos Cientificos y Tecnologicos . pp. 137-176. AMV and Mundi-Prensa Editions, Madrid. 

Solvent-free enzymatic interesterification of milk fat alone or with other fats or fatty acids provides the most acceptable route for modification of the triacylglycerol structures in milk fat and further research and development in this field is expected to provide physical and physiological benefits. From a nutritional perspective, it is of interest to examine the effects of randomized milk fat on serum cholesterol. Christophe et al. (1978) reported that substitution of native milk fat with chemically-randomized interester-ified milk fat reduced cholesterol levels in man. However, others found that there was no effect on serum cholesterol levels in man as a result of substitution of ezymatically randomized milk fat (De Greyt and Huyghebaert, 1995). Further studies are required to determine if interesterilied milk fat provides a nutritional benefit. 

There are opportunities for using on-farm and post-farm approaches for manipulating milk fat to improve its attractiveness as an ingredient in functional foods (Baer et al., 2001 Hillbrick and Augustin, 2002). The emergence of the functional foods (i.e., foods that provide benefits beyond normal nutrition) and the accumulating evidence that some fats, minor lipids and fat-soluble products can have important roles in nutrition and the prevention of disease (Parodi, 2003, 2004 see Chapter 17) has opened opportunities for milk fat and its components in the growing market for functional foods. 

The completion of harmonisation of rules for plastic food contact materials and articles is within sight. The finalisation of the positive list for authorised additives is likely to happen in 2008. In 2007 the Commission will, besides the Community list of authorised additives, publish a list of additives authorised at national level for which a valid application for EU authorisation has been made to EES A. Only these substances may be used until evaluation is finalised by EES A and a decision on authorisahon is taken by the European Commission. Another project in the plastics sector is the extension of the rules to multimaterial multilayer structures where the plastic layer is in contact with the food. At this moment only plastic materials which consist entirely of plastic are covered by the plastics Directive. These materials, when they are made up from layers of plastic, constitute only about 15% of the mutilayer market. Other multilayer materials such as beverage cartons, which consist of a food contact layer of plastic and aluminium and/or paper, are not yet covered by specific legislation. Extension of the plastics mles to these materials will have to take into consideration requirements for the non-plastic layers and establish mles for migration testing of these materials. 

When migration limits for substances are set a conventional system is applied to calculate exposure. It is assumed that a 60 kg person will consume 1 kg of packaged food per day. However, a different convention is sometimes necessary for some circumstances. One such arises in the case of lipophilic substances. Lipophilic substances migrate readily into fatty foods. The consumption of fatty foods is usually only 200 g or less per day. For these substances a reduction factor is therefore planned for use in compliance testing, taking into account the lower consumption of fat. 

In multilayer materials a layer can function as a barrier to migration of 

Basic requirements for active and intelligent materials have been set in the Framework Regulation. However, some issues need further clarification. The main issues are the applicability of the requirements of the plastics directive to active and intelligent plastic materials, especially compliance with overall and specific migration limits, rules for non-plastic active and intelligent materials, risk assessment of active ingredients and if necessary conditions/restriction of their use, and mles on the efficacy of the materials in relation to instructions for their use and protection of the consumer. 

For the majority of materials and articles specific Community legislation is not yet in place. In the area of plastic materials and articles, monomers and 

Before the first case of BSE occurred in the United States, beef exports 

Agazzi, M.F .., Moreno, J.B., von Holst, C., Lucker, E., and Anklam, E. 2004. Quantitative analysis of tissues of the central nervous system in food products by GFAP-ELISA test kit. Results of an interlaboratory study. Food Control 15, 297-301. 

Williams, S., Shano, A., Mckinstry, J.L., Helps, C.R., Waterman-Pearson, A., Seghatchian, J., and Harbour, D.A. 1999. Potential contamination of beef carcasses with brain tissue at slaughter. Vet. Rec. 145, 460-462. 

Australia National Health Information System 2007. National TSE Surveillance Program-cattle data. Accessed on 1/13/07 athttp //www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/nahis/ public.php page = viewNTSEdata. 

Biedermann, W., Lucker, E., and Hensel, A. 2002. Detection of central nervous system (CNS) as specified risk material (SRM) in meat products by means of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wschr. 115,131-134. 

In the preceding sections an overwiev is given of the application of catalysts in environmental technology, focusing on stationary sources. This last section overviews new developments in environmental catalysis and the challenges for fundamental 

Pyrolysis and liquefaction may be used for the production of fuels for both electricity generation and chemical synthesis. However, these fields of catalyst application are still in their infancy. 

Catalysis will play an important role in meeting environmental requirements for gasification. The control of nitrogen and sulfur compounds is crucial to avoid emissions of NO , and SOv 

The main goals for the application of environmental catalysis are minimizing both gas cleaning costs and emission requirements. 

Preshaped catalysts, monolithic structures, are found to have many large-scale applications downstream from gas turbines, heaters, and in afterburners. Catalytic membranes are under development. 

The present chapter has surveyed the latest results in the development of solid-state zirconia gas sensors for monitoring such important gaseous pollutants as NO, and C, Hy. Recent research and development of oxide-SEs as well as the improvement in design of the total-NO sensors in the early twenty-first century revealed that the 

FIGURE 3.24 Response and recovery transients to various gases (NO and NO2, 200 ppm others, 400 ppm each) of the sensor using a ZnO (+1.5 wt.% Pt)-SE at 1 Hz. (Reprinted from Nakatou, M. and Miura, N., Detection of propene by using new-type impedancemetric zir-conia-based sensor attached with oxide sensing-electrode, Sens. Actuators B, Chem. 120 (2006) 57-62, with permission from Elsevier Science.) 

Potentiometric, non-Nemstian, zirconia-based, mixed-potential sensors offer several advantages. The recent shift from random to carefully selected properties for SEs of both single oxides and spinels has increased the working temperature of these sensors to 700°C, which is compatible with the working temperature at the vehicle exhausts. These devices are comparatively simple in design, and they exhibit 

Further development of new impedance-based gas sensors is likely to allow their introduction to niche applications in the field of zirconia-based, solid-state gas sensors. Impedance spectroscopy has the potential to measure changes not detectable with simple current or voltage measurements. Although it is not practical to implement complete impedance spectroscopy in an operating sensor, an optimized frequency suitable for a specific gas sensor may be used. So far, these sensors are still more complex and expensive as compared to the potentiometric zirconia-based gas sensors. However, they have two important advantages (1) measurement of total NOx concentration, regardless of the NO/NO2 ratio in exhausts and (2) near equal sensitivity to NO and NO2 at 700°C. These are essential prerequisites to their practical implementation in vehicle exhausts. Therefore, further investigation is 

Finally, planar, thick-film, YSZ-based sensors for O2, and NO, are expected to reinforce their place in the maiket owing to their rapid response and potential for implementation as multicomponent gas sensors in vehicle exhausts. The performance of recently developed nltra-lean-bum engines and NO, storage catalysts depends significantly on the performance of such sensors. Thus, solid-state electrochemical sensors must reach even higher levels of performance and reliability, so continued development of these sensors is required in order to address more stringent requironents. 

Interesting advances have been made in TLC such as an automated development chamber which improves reproducibility, a cutting technology which can be used with pre-coated plates, a densitometer for quantitative evaluation of plates, as well as new computerised application databases [36]. TLC plates are getting smaller in size (surface) which leads to an increase in elution speed and to a decrease in solvent consumption. 

The continued concern over various residues and additives lead to more efficient and rapid testing methods. Conventional chromatographic testing will be replaced by a 2-tiered approach involving rapid on the spot screening (bio-sensor, immunoassay or portable GC) followed by confirmation by conventional methods. More selective detectors such as mass spectrometry (MS), tandem MS-MS and Fourier Transform infra-red wiU be used and sample preparation will be improved by using SPE, new extraction technologies, and laboratory robotics [36]. 

This chapter has shown that there are basically two t5q es of chromatography development, which consists of paper and thin layer, and elution, which 

Main Features of Paper, Thin Layer, and Column Chromatography 

Paper Inexpensive, easy to quantitate, difficult to reproduce because of 

Similar to storage vessels, the process of materials selection for manifold components will balance performance, manufacturing, and cost. The current 

Sample preparation is under continuous evolution because it is a very time consuming and difficult stage in the whole analytical process and it is a source of errors. Hence, the recent trend is to try to reduce time and manual work to avoid introducing contaminants and losing analyte in the preparation process. 

Samples must be of adequate form for the instrument used in the analysis. The liquid form is the most common way to introduce samples into instruments, such as chromatographs. Solid samples must be put into liquid form or the soluble components must be extracted. A recent trend is to decrease the volume of chemicals used in the sample preparation steps before injection as well as the injected volume itself. Microextraction on a drop or small volume is of increasing interest. Of course, the actual volume injected into a chromatograph depends upon the analyte concentration in the prepared samples. The current trends reveal that initial sample volumes for hquid samples are decreasing, less than 100 /rl, or even smaller. The use of smaller sample volumes is an indication of the increased sensitivity of analytical instmmentation. 

Recently, new separation principles have been introduced and although these are very promising, they have not been extensively used for environmental analysis. Among them are FFF, pervaporation and biosorption. AU of them are easy to handle and not very expensive. In addition, FFF has very simple fundamental principles while pervaporation is very prone to automation and miniaturization. Biosorption is especially interesting for metal concentration because biosorbents can accumulate up to 25% of their dry weight in heavy metals. Some of the biosorbents are waste by-products of large scale industrial fermentations or certain abundant seaweeds. Analytes are easily released from the biosorbent and the biosorbent is regenerated for subsequent reuse.  

Coupled-column separations or multidimensional chromatography can be considered as a sample preparation form, as one column is used to derive fractions for the second column. It provides a two dimensional separation in which sample substances are distributed over a retention plane formed by the operation of two independent columns. This type of two dimensional based separation method is more powerful than a single dimensional based one. A retention plane has more peak capacity than a retention line and so can accommodate much more complex mixtures. Component identification is more reliable because each substance has two identifying retention measures rather than one. These type of combinations offer high selectivity and high sensitivity, and could be used with less expensive and more robust detectors (e.g., flame ionization).  

However, the variety of composite materials to be elaborated by the method is still scarcely explored. For example bi- and multi-metal or semiconductor nanoparticles, included in different matrices (polymeric membranes, porous supports,. ..) have promising applications. New methods of cluster characterization at this extremely low size scale are developed and will improve their study. 

As shown by a few recent examples, pulse radiolysis is also a powerful tool, as an alternative to other pulse techniques, to study reactions at the interface between clusters and solution, such as fast heterogeneous catalytic processes, or transfer of the charges generated inside the particle. 

Moreover, the interpretation of experimental data on clusters in solution requires more elaborated theoretical models to include solvation effects around the structure of a small metal or semiconductor cluster. New kinetics models are also to be developed to describe nucleation which governs the phase transition from a solute to a small solid phase. 

Haissinsky, La chimie nucleaire et ses applications, Masson Cie, Paris, (1957). 

Baxendale, E.M. Fielden, J.P. Keene and M. Ebert, in Pulse Radiolysis, J.P. Keene, A. Swallow, J.H. Baxendale (eds.), Acad Press, London, (1965) 207. 

Microwave SPPS is enabling technology currently involved in much active research. As new hardware is installed throughout the world, use and knowledge of microwave SPPS is increasing daily. For example, microwave energy was recently used to substantially increase the purity of several long jS-peptides, which suffer from low synthetic efficiency when conventional techniques are used [60]. 

With future opportunities for microwave energy in the peptide synthesis field, more advanced tools will be needed. Applications requiring peptide libraries may lead to the development of a parallel system capable of 96-well plate formats. With currently available hardware, however, preparing the plate may limit overall peptide production because increasing reaction speed may not substantially in- 

HCTU lH-Benzotriazolium-l-[bis(dimethylamino)methylene]5-chloro hexafluor- 

PyBOP Benzotriazol-l-yl-N-oxy-tris(pyrrolidino)phosphonium hexafluorophos- 

PyAOP (7-Azabenzotriazol-l-yloxy)-tris(pyrrolidino)phosphonium hexafluoro- 

Owing to some unique properties, cyclodextrins have been successfidly established as very useful chiral selectors in all instrumental analytical enantioseparation techniques. Further studies are required for a better understanding of the fine mechanisms of enantioselective recognition of these wonderful macrocydic molecules as well as for evaluation of their potential for preparative scale enantioseparations. 

Mikoiajgzyk, J. Deabowigz, F. Ceamee, /. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1971, 317-318. 

Venema, P.J.A. Tolsma,/. High Resolut. Chromatogr. Chromatogr. Commun. 1989, 12, 32-34. 

Enantioselective Gas Chromatography with Modified Cyelodextrins, Huthig, Heidelberg, 1992. 

Sghueig, H. Geosenigk, M. Juza, Reel. Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas 114, 1995, 211-219. 

Shape memory polymers are here to stay, not only because of their unique ability to display double existence under the influence of a triggering mechanism, but also because, unlike shape memory alloys, their elastic deformation and recoverable strains are huge, and their transition dependence can be tailored to fit specific requirements as well as having excellent biocompatibility, nontoxicity, ease of manufacture, and, perhaps most importantly, low cost of manufacture. 

To date, heat-triggered shape memory polymers have had the greatest share of research and application adaptation. However, trigger mechanisms could also be chemo-responsive, e.g., water, ethanol, and pH change photo-responsive, e.g., UV or IR, including radio waves and/or mechano-responsive, e.g., stretching, impact, etc. 

Further exploration of these triggering mechanisms in association with the chemistry of the polymers concerned not only would expand the appUcation potentials of such materials, but combination and design versatility of these SMPs with specified trigger mechanisms could provide an array of smart functionaUties with highly sophisticated task duties in implants, drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound dressings, and many other technical applications in everyday consumable and industrial products. 

Another area where the advent of ATP has opened up new design possibilities is the creation of panels where different plies can be selectively interwoven through the thickness of the laminate. Such laminates are called AP-PLY laminates [36,37]. This is done with 

The general trend in fabric finishing is to use less water and less harmful chemicals. The realization is, however, not obvious since it demands the replacement of often cheap and well-known processes and products. Such a change often imparts, especially at the start of the switch-over, quality differences, process instabilities, and the like. 

In the future, the use of chemicals in fabric finishing for apparel will be defined by various players such as ECH A/REACH, environmental organizations, and brands. The impact of REACH on fabric finishing is large. Dangerous substances have been put on the S VHC (substances of very high concern) list, and others will be listed in the future. Depending on the route that follows (restriction, anthorization), the chanical will be restricted or banned completely, to some extent, or will get an exemption for some applications. 

Another future trend is the idea of chemical leasing (www.chemicaUeasing.com), a novel business model of sustainable management of chemicals, in which the responsibility of the producer increases as the producer no longer just sells the chemical but remains the owner of the chemical. As such the producer assists in textile processing and is responsible for the waste management of the used chemicals. This model is intended to promote more successful chemical management. 

Today s fabric finisher needs various capabilities. Besides being technically well performing, the fabric finisher must be weU acquainted with legislation regarding chemical 

The authors are indebted to the Flemish Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT grants 070660, 080725, 095024, 100386, 110391, and 120273) and the European Commission (grants FP7-SME-2008-1-232411, FP7-SME-2010-1-262652) for financial support of their work. 

A particularly strong and recent trend is the introduction of non-setting pastes or putties. Presently, there are as many non-setting pastes as cements. Since their production is often less tricky than that of cements (no need to provide a paste with always the same setting time), and their biological response is often better, it is very likely that there will soon be more commercial formulations of nonsetting pastes than cements. Interestingly, academic research is very limited in this field. 

Another important trend in the future will be the improvement in the biological properties of bone substitutes, the aim being to transform a bone defect into new mature bone as fast as possible. This implies that the focus will be set on resorbable materials that possess an open-porous structure allowing cells to invade the structure. Another potential focus could be set on osteoinductive ceramics. A number of authors have indeed observed that ceramic bone graft substitutes implanted under the skin or in muscles are filled or coated with bone over time. However, despite very intensive research, there is only a poor understanding of the mechanisms leading to osteoinduction, and as a result, it is not possible at the moment to design an osteoinductive ceramic. 

A last trend is to add minute amounts of foreign ions into ceramic bone graft substitutes to improve their biological behaviour. Most efforts have been set on Si, but other ions have been looked at such as Mg, Na, Sr, or Even 

Tanner JC. BreathabiUty, comfort and Gore-Tex laminates. J Coated Fabrics 1979 8 312. 

Painter CJ. Waterproof, breathable fabric laminates a perspective from film to market place. / Coated Fabrics 1996 26(2) 107-30. 

Fung W. Products from coated and laminated fabrics. In Coated and laminated textiles. Cambridge, England The Textile Institute, Woodhead Publishing Ltd 2002. p. 149-249. 

Sen AK. Coated textiles principles and applications. Lancaster, Basel Technomic Pubhshing Co. Inc. 2001. p. 133-54. 

11 PREDICTING STARTING DOSES FOR ANIMAL AND HUMAN CLINICAL TRIALS 

The biopharmaceutical industry is open to new trends and technologies, which is driven by time and cost restraints and the need to produce new therapeutic drugs within the confines of regulatory approval. No in vitro or in vivo animal 

Beveridge R, Reitman JF, Fausel C, Leather H, McFarland H, Rifkin RM, Valley A. Guide to Selected Cancer Chemotherapy Regimens and Associated Adverse Events. Fifth Edition. Amgen, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2004. 

Bradley TR, Metcalf D. The growth of mouse bone marrow cells in vitro. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci. 1966 44 287-299. 

Delorme B, Chateauvieux S, Charbord P. The concept of mesenchymal stem cells. Regen Med. 2006 l(4) 497-509. 

On a tactical level, the art of camouflage is not in what a soldier wears, but rather in how well he blends with the environment, using what the environment has to 

Development of completely different biomaterials from the existing commercially available five basic building blocks as sutures has been very rare. Barrows (1986,1994) introduced a new family of synthetic absorbable PEA polymer and fibers in 1990s. He made a series of nonamino acid-based PEAs from poly esterification of diols that contain preformed amide linkages, such as amidediols.The rationale for making PEAs is to combine the well-known 

Im et al (2007) have developed a manufacturing technique to produce monofilament sutures by a conjugate spinning method. Two absorbable polymers, PDS and a copolymer of / -dioxanone, trimethylene carbonate and e-caprolactone were used in this spinning method. The resulting bicomponent monofilament suture fiber (MonoFlex ) has 97 mol% / -dioxanone and exhibits the sea/islands type cross-sectional morphology shown in Fig. 11.2. These sea/island type bicomponent materials can place many fine strands 

The strength retention of MonoFlex suture in intramuscular tissue of male Sprague Dawley rats was better than the in vitro data, for example, 70% retention in vivo vs 55% retention in vitro at the end of 4 weeks (Im et al., 2007). Complete absorption was achieved after 180-210 days postimplantation. The sea component was completely absorbed at the end of 180 days, while the island portion was not completely absorbed until 210 days. This in vivo absorption period is similar to but slightly faster than found with the PDSII sutures which were not completely absorbed until 180-240 days. In addition, MonoFlex accelerated its mass decrease only after 120 days, while this did 

2 Poly (L-lactide-co-e-caprolactone)-based absorbable sutures 

As are the other commercial PGA- and PLA-based synthetic absorbable sutures, the P(LA/CL) polymer is synthesized from the traditional ringopening polymerization of L-lactide and e-caprolactone in the presence of octoate catalyst at 75 to 25 molar ratio of the two co-monomers. Ihe weight- 

BROOKMAN E M, LAMSAL R et al (2011) Comparing the formation of bromate and bromoform dne to ozonation and UV-Ti02 oxidation in seawater. Journal of Advanced Oxidation Technologies 14(1) 23-30. 

BRUNVOLD L (2010) Microbial ecology in the early life stages of intensively reared marine species, PhD Thesis, University of Bergen. 

BRUNVOLD L, SANDAA R-A et al. (2007) Characterisation of bacterial communities associated with early stages of intensively reared cod Gadus morhua) nsing Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE). Aquaculture 272(1-4) 319-327. 

CHEN s T, BISOGNI M B, TIMMONS J J and ANESHANSLEY D J (1993a) Protein and its removal by foam fractionation. The Progressive Fish-Culturist 55(2) 76-82. 

Rapid Sensory Profiling Techniques and Related Methods 

Over the past three to four decades much progress has been achieved by sensory scientists to develop methods and continue to improve the quality of the information obtained. It is reasonable to expect that this progress will continue. 

The idea of having available rapid methods to respond to requests for product sensory information is, as already noted, essential. However, such a resource means having subjects who have the necessary sensory skill and experience to provide information that can be relied on. This also means that one should not select subjects at random or use software for analysis that is not understood. While some legacy methods require many weeks of training, some do not. The sensory staff has to decide what is the best approach to take in developing capabilities so that best use is made of available resources. The choices are documented here along with reference to where more details can be found. 

Bradley, R.A. and Harmon, T.J. (1964). The modified triangle test. Biometrics, 20, 608-625. 

Brandt, M.A., Skinner, E. and Coleman, J. (1963). Texture profile method. J. Food ScL, 28, 404-410. 

Science and technology have combined to make our everyday life comfortable, but has placed a burden on the environment in the following ways  

Current regulations aim to preserve the environment via recycling materials. Solid waste, particularly plastics waste, is non-degradable and requires economic disposal techniques. 

Burning waste is sometimes seen by consumers as a convenient way to avoid trips to landfill sites, and the municipal corporation is a serious threat to air quality in some developed and developing countries. Pollutants have been linked to many health concerns, including cancer, disruption of endocrine function, developmental problems, endometriosis, cardiovascular disease, asthma and diabetes. Burning the waste also causes fire hazards, unpleasant odours and chemical fog in addition, the toxic ash can contaminate water supplies [1]. 

Their similarity to the biological environment, and reduced likelihood of toxicity and inflammatory reactions, gives materials of natural origin a distinct advantage over synthetic ones. Despite this advantage, naturally derived polymers possess poor mechanical properties. It was concluded that 

Ceramic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and hydroxyapatite are components that could potentially be incorporated to improve the structural properties of these polymers and, thus, play a key role in future developments of tissue-engineered composites. 

Mechanical properties are of crucial importance for the regeneration of load-bearing tissues such as bone, to withstand stresses, to avoid scaffold fracture, and to maintain the structure to define the shape of the regenerated tissue. Inorganic nanoparticle fillers have been shown to add tensile strength, stiffness, abrasion resistance, crack resistance, and stability to polymer networks. Furthermore, the presence of an osteoinductive mineral phase, e g. bone-like apatite, provides the further benefit of increased stiffness and enhances and accelerates new bone formation. The significantly superior mechanical properties of these scaffolds create a better environment for bone healing and formation within the defect. 

The development of coupling methodologies that increase the adhesion of ceramic particles to the polymeric matrix is believed to be a possible route for the improvement of mechanical performance of these composites. From a materials point of view, a clear trend towards the development of composites can be detected. Hence, it can be predicted that composites will be the second and third generation of scaffold materials to enter the clinical arena in bone engineering applications. 

In addition, in studies presented so far, materials implanted into surgically 

The call for recycled textile materials (secondary raw material SRM) becomes stronger with 

4 Call for recycled textile materials as depending on the market of primary raw materials.  

Eisele D. (1996), Reclaimed fibres. Characteristics. Background, Melliand Textilberichte, 77, 4, 199-202. 

Magel M., Magel M., Bieber B. (1993), First research results to define a number of selected textile-physical parameters of reclaimed fibres, Kolloquium Reissfaser 93, Sachsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e.V. Chemnitz. 

Fischer H., Rettig D., Harig H. (1999), Image processing to measure the length distribution of reclaimed fibres, Melliand Textilberichte, 80, 358-360. 

Organic synthesis—chemistry as it is done in the laboratory or manufacturing plant—traditionally uses a step-by-step approach. In a typical sequence, a starting material A is converted into a final product D, and intermediate products B and C have to be isolated and purified in each conversion step. 

On the other hand, biosynthesis—chemistry as nature performs it in the cells of organisms—goes through a multistep cascade to convert starting material A to final product D without separation of intermediates B and C. 

Set up identical reactions and keep enzyme loading (mass) constant. 

Choose enzyme with good conversion and high selectivity. 

Optimize pH, temperature, enzyme modifications necessary, use of cyclodextrins, crown ethers, etc. 

There has always been constant interest and effort in developing abrasive-ftee slurries for almost all the CMP apphcations due to their nonuse of abrasives and potentiality to eliminate any defects and scratches. Even though the defectivity from scratches was acceptable in older technology nodes, it will be detrimental to the device performance 

1 Tailoring surface properties, drug flux and mechanical properties through plasma post-treatment 

Thin Film Coatings for Biomaterials and Biomedical Applications 

Data points have been redrawn ftom Mogal VT, Yin CS, O Rorke R, Boujday S, Methivier C, Venkatraman SS, et al. Tuning model drug release and soft-tissue bioadhesion of polyester films by plasma post-treatment. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2014 6(8) 5749—5758. 

Plasma-based post-treatment processing of thin films is still in its infancy because high-throughput and scaled-up manufacturing are relatively difficult for the current generation of vacuum-based RF plasma instruments. However, as atmospheric pressure—based plasma instruments become cheaper and simpler to operate, more laboratory and commercial application will ensue. 

Burchak ON, Mugherli L, Ostuni M, Lacapete JJ, Balakirev MY. Combinatorial discovery of fluorescent pharmacophores by multicomponent reactions in droplet arrays. JAm Chem Soc 2011 133(26) 10058-61. 

Recently, thermoplastic composites such as GMT and LFT are becoming more and more popular in the automotive industry whereas thermoset molding compounds have been the principal molding materials. Carbon fibers are increasing their share even in the automotive industry in spite 

Maximum displacements under the load for three cases. 

Advani, S. G. and Tucker HI, C. L. (1987), The use of tensors to describe and predict fiber orientation in short fiber composites , Journal of Rheology, 31, 751-784. 

Significant advances have been made in the design, formation, and characterization of polyurethane nanoparticles. Different approaches have been employed to synthesize polyurethane nanoparticles as carriers of imaging agents, as dmgs, or as copolymers to form different versatile matrices. The chemical reactivity and properties of these polymers make them suitable to bind peptides, nucleic acids, antibodies. 

Kumari A, Yadav SK, Yadav SC. Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles based drug delivery systems. Colloids SurfB Biointerfaces 2010 75 1-18. 

Mallapragada S, Narasimhan B, Wan Q. Multifunctional nanoparticles for targeted delivery of immune activating and cancer therapeutic agents. J Control Release 2013 172(3) 1020-34. 

Morral-Ruiz G, Melgar-Lesmes P, Lopez-Vicente A, Solans C, Garcia-Celma MJ. Biotinylated polyurethane-urea nanoparticles for targeted theranostic in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Nano Res 2015 8(5) 1729 5. 

Kreuter J. In Singh Nawla H, editor. Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nano- technology, vol. 7. Stevenson Ranch (USA) American Scientifics Publishers 2004. p. 161. 

As stated in the introduction, polymers are effect chemicals. This means that they serve a particular need. The two principal factors which govern whether a polymer is satisfactory are price and performance (which are mainly mechanical properties). 

These fibres are very rarely used on their own, but are used in composites to impart strength. As stated earlier, these composites are often made from short-length fibres, but a recent application is filament winding (pultrusion) in which the fibre is continuously coated with a thermoplastic resin as it is wound up. Although this is time-consuming, it does allow the designer to place the fibres so that the maximum strength is where it is needed. Also the materials can be stored, reshaped, rejoined, etc., by the user.  

Many of the above effects are empirical. Polymer physicists are now trying to understand and predict certain properties. The interface between addi-tive/polymer or polymer blends has received attention. One problem is how thick this interface has to be—several atoms or several thousand atoms thick Another problem is how energy is absorbed during fracture. Theoretical calculations have not been able to predict why some polymers are more difficult to fracture than others (this is not quite the same as saying that an amorphous polymer will incur brittle fracture below its Tg). The diffusion of polymer molecules at molten interfaces is another problem which has practical implications—crack annealing and fusion/joining of preformed parts. 

Space has not permitted a discussion on the most sophisticated of all polymers—biopolymers. This is a huge field including substances as diverse as wood, protein and sea-shells. These polymers have evolved over millions of years, whereas synthetic polymer chemists have only had a fraction of this time. Micro-organisms can act as catalysts to generate biopolymers, many of 

Characterisation of Highly Cross-Linked Polymers , eds. S. S. Labana and R. A. Dickie, ACS Symp. Ser. 243 (1984). 

Many raw fibers require degumming before they can be used. Conventional processes that remove plant gum from ramie and hemp use hot alkaline solutions, and these methods have high energy demands, of raising concerns about disposal methods. As an alternative, Kapoor et al. [83] evaluated the use of a polygalacturonase from a bacterium Bacillus sp. strain MG-cp-2) to degum ramie and hemp to produce cellulosic fibers. In experiments with ramie, a chemical treatment with 2% NaOH at 90°C for 8 h released 4.1 

Advances made over the past few decades have improved our understanding of the biodegradation of fibers, films, and fabrics. Experience has shown which types of polymers are susceptible to biodegradation, and which types are not susceptible. Applying this solid background of information, new 

Aranaz I., Mengfbar M., Harris R., Panes I., Miralles B., Acosta N,Galed G. and Heras A. (2009), Functional characterization of chitin and chitosan. Current Chemical Biology, 3,203-230. 

Adewnmi A.A. and Ogunjinmi A.A. (2011), The heaUng potential of honey and propolis lotion on septic wounds, Asian Pac c Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 1 (1), September 2011, S5S-S57. 

Atiyeh B.S. CostagUola M., Hayek S.N. and Dibo S. A. (2007), Effect of silver on bum wound infection control and healing Review of the Uteratnre, Bums, 33 (2), March 2007,139-148. 

Behrouz R., Ourmazdi M. and RezaT.P. (1993), Iran - The Cradle of Science. 21st edn., Iran Almanac, 115-118. 

Carter M.J., Tingley-Kelley K. and Warriner R.A. (2010), Silver treatments and silver-impregnated dressings for the healing of leg wounds and nlcets A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 63(4), October 2010, 668-679. 

Financial support from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion (Projects CTQ2012-35041 and CTQ2012-34238), and Comunidad de Madrid S2013/MT-3029 (NANOAVAnSENS) is gratefully acknowledged. 

Escarpa, A. (2012) Food electroanalysis sense and simplicity. Chem. Rec., 12,72-91. Serra, B., Reviejo, A.J. and Pingarron, JM. (2007) in Electrochemical Sensor Analysis, Wilson Wilson s Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, Chapter 13 (eds S. Alegret and A. Merkogi), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 257-258. 

Rooney, R. and Wall, RG. (2003) Food safety, in Encyclopedia of Food Science and Nutrition (eds B. Caballero, L. Trugo and P.M. Finglas), Academic Press, New York, pp. 27-30. 

et al (2010) Simultaneous determination of four 5-hydroxy polymethoxyflavones by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. J. Chromatogr. A, 1217, 642-647. 

Besides these new backbones, there are also many other approaches being pursued to improve detergents and dispersants to better address maiket needs. 

Cost reduction activities by reducing treat rate and process improvements are continually occurring, as are formulating approaches to improved compatibility with low friction/fiiel economy systems, improved viscometrics and incorporation of EP/antiwear and low S/P/Cl and ashless components. 

The EU sugar regime is due to be revised in 2015, the current one having been in place sinee 2006. It is as yet imelear about what exactly will happen, but there are clear signs that quotas will disappear. This is likely to bring much more volatility to the EU market, with bigger price fluctuations and less certainly about sugar beet profitability. 

Harris P. M. The Potato Crop The Scientific Basisfor Improvement, Chapman Hall, 1991. Draycott, A. P. (ed) Sugar Beet. World Agriculture Series. Blackwell, 2006. http /Avww.beetoebest.co.uk/downloads/BBRO%20Spring%20Crop%20Management%20 BuUetin.pdf 

The price of ethylene from 2004-2010 represents an excellent example of the ethylene price volatility spanning relatively low feedstock costs to relatively high feedstock costs, with the price of ethylene in January 2009 illustrating the weakness in ethylene prices during a global economic recession. This data is summarized in Table 1.18. 

Year Capacity (Trillion cubic feet/year) 

Note Annual growth rates of LNG production from 2005 2015 is approximately 15%. 

As the highest cost producers, ethylene plants using oil-based feedstock such as naphtha determine the price of ethylene. This type of pricing heavily favors ethylene producers using natural gas-based ethane as feedstock. Costs as of January, 2010 are shown Table 1.19 [17]. 

Philosophical, Logical and Scientific Perspectives in Engineering, Intelligent Systems Reference Library 143, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01742-6 7, Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 

The application of LC techniques has allowed the determination of a large number of food compounds, including carbohydrates, vitamins. 

It is also expected that applications of multidimensional LC x LC techniques in food analysis will continue to grow. These techniques provide extraordinary gains in separation power that make them ideal for the analysis of complex matrices such as foods. Although the coupling of different chromatographic separations is not new, the technological development has led, above all, to an increase of comprehensive applications, in which the whole sample is analyzed in two independent dimensions, reducing the sample preparation steps. 

Nowadays, the modem trend to apply powerful foodomics-based approaches in food science [26] is also increasing, in order to obtain profiles or fingerprints of foods that can assure their traceability, authenticity, and quality as well as their effect on human health at the molecular level. In this new field, the hyphenation of LC, UPLC, or nano-LC techniques with high-accuracy and fast mass spectrometers, such as QTOF or Orbitrap. is expected to provide unbeatable results. 

Nanotechnology has improved the technical properties of fibres in textiles and coatings in such areas as electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, interaction with light, photonics, chemical protection, friction control, abrasion resistance, waste water and oil repellence, soil release and biocompatibility. Tailoring and controlling structures on the nano-scale level is a key factor in the development of advanced materials or structural components in multifunctional applications. Some finishing processes in 

1 3[ o Q N3 O Glass fibre woven fabric PTFE coating 

O Glass fibre woven fabric Silicone coating 

Woven fabric from ETEE yarns TEIV coating 

Cotton/polyester blend woven fabric PVC foil 

The most important role of chromatographic techniques is that they ensure the necessary selectivity and chemical purity prior to detection. Although there have been dramatic improvements in detection systems, it is still very important to boost the performance of separation methods. Better separation often means lower detection limits, better quantitation, and more confident identification of unknowns. As most compounds in biological systems are nonvolatile, LC-based techniques dominate over GC in the biomedical field. 

The second trend to watch is miniaturization. This is advantageous not only because sample amount is often limited but also because performance may be improved, and running costs can be reduced (e.g., by using less chemicals). Small size also means that more equipment can be put into the (often-limited) laboratory space. The main limitation of miniaturization is sensitivity. In this respect MS, due to its sensitivity, is also invaluable. Luckily an important mass spectrometric technique, nanospray ionization, is ideally suited for coupling to nano-HPLC [34] (requires nl/min flow rates). This reduces sample requirement, and also facilitates coupling MS with electrophoretic techniques. 

The third and possibly the most important trend is high throughput and automatization/robotization. The prerequisite is very robust methodology, which is becoming available. Most high-quality instruments are capable of automatic operation this will become increasingly widespread. This can reduce labor costs and may make individual-based medication and population-wide medical screening possible. 

High-Performance Liquid-Chromatography—Principles and Clinical-Applications. Br. Med J., 299, 783-787 (1989). 

and Gromov, P, 2D protein electrophoresis can it be perfected Curr. Opin. BiotechnoL, 10, 16-21 (1999). 

Recent progress in science and technology is leading to more corrosion-resistant alloys and is promising to discover the real passive Mg alloys. Original new creep-resistant alloys for structural purposes and new appropriate snrface preparation, pre-treatments and coatings will open the door to this metal for 

78EIS spectra, Nyquist representation, at 6h immersion with the corresponding equivaient circuit of the sacrificiai aiioy iVI3 (ASTiVI soiution) (Guadarrama-iVluhoz ef a/., 2006). 

Geladi, P. and Grahn, H. (1996) Multivariate Image Analysis in Chemistry and Related Areas Chemometric Image Analysis, John Wiley Sons, Ltd, Chichester. 

Krooshof, P.W.T., Geert, J., Postma, G.J., Meissen, W.J., and Buydens, L.M.C. (2009) in Evaluation of Spectroscopic Images, in Biomedical Imaging Principles and Applications (ed. R. Salzer), John Wiley Sons, Ltd, Chichester, pp. 1-29. 

Handbook of Chemometrics and Quali-metrics. Data Handling in Science and Technology, voL 20, Elsevier. 

Davies, T. (2002) Multivariate Calibration and Classification, NIR Publications, Chichester. 

There are a large number of possible alternative corrosion inhibitors to chromates. Until now, none of the main inorganic compounds (including lanthanides and others such as molybdates, silicates and various salts of these materials) seem to be effective one-to-one replacements for chromates (Cook, etal, 2007). However, the uses of environmentally friendly inhibitors have proved that acceptable levels of inhibition can be obtained. It has been remarked by the Committee on Research Opportunities in Corrosion Science and Engineering (2011) herein lies a very important area for additional research . 

There are two aspects that are particularly interesting for the future. One is the controlled release of corrosion inhibitors and the other is the stndy of the synergy of these substances with others, organic or inorganic, to improve their inhibition efficiency. 

In the first case, encapsulation of REM cations in the matrix of coatings, mainly sol-gel, is of particular interest. The purpose of the incorporation of snch cations in such coatings is to be later released, in a eontroUed way, upon eventual exposure to an aggressive enviromnent, precipitating in the active areas and blocking the corrosion reactions. Thus, this protective system attempts to balance the barrier properties supphed by the coating itself with the active corrosion protection role of the eontained speeies. 

On the other hand, just the mixing of REM ions with other compounds seems to be a feasible way to achieve the inhibition efficiency required in very aggressive media, for example acidic media. REM by themselves are not able to supply the inhibition efficiency required in many industrial applications. These mixtnres of inhibitors have produced various synergies between different compounds (cathodic/ anodic inhibitors, cathodic surfactant inhibitors). Promising results, discussed elsewhere in this book, show inhibitor effects that would not be possible through the use of these substances separately. So, synergism is an effective method to improve inhibitor efficiency, and to reduce the amount of the compound used. It is also an interesting way to extend the application of these inhibitors to acidic media. 

This has created a new branch of investigation, centered on the study of different substances, to establish which are the most effective in providing an optimal mixture for maximum inhibitor efficiency for a specific alloy system. In this sense, these mixtures would satisfy the demands of the steel surface finishing industry in which the surface cleaning and pickling play an important role. In the case of the REM mixtures and organic compounds, the improvements described up to the present seem to be a consequence of the formation of a layer that covers a great part of the surface and which is composed of both species. Nevertheless, determination of the mechanism by which the corrosion kinetics is reduced is 

Currently, much of the research on HA nanocrystals is broadly classifiable into four categories (i) high-strength HA using nano-HA and dopants (ii) HA 

Ru(ll) polypyridyl complex with phosphonic acid anchor groups. (Reproduced from 

) (b) Dispersion and environment of acid sites anchored on a crystal-like PMO played a crucial role in its catalytic activity in water. (Reproduced from Ref. [149].) 

At present, progress in the area of ordered mesoporous silicas is related with the development of PMOs with intelligent design and tunable properties dictated by 

Madeleine, R.B., Page, L.E., and Duchene, J, (1970) Porous silica particles containing a crystallized phase and method. US Patent 3,493,341. 

Kallrath, G., and Biegler, H. (1968) Process for producing silica in the form of hollow spheres. US Patent 3,383,172. Vincent, C., Joseph, E.R., and Qarence, D.V. (1971) Process for producing low-bulk density silica. US Patent 3,556,725. Beck, J.S., Chu, C.T.-W., Johnson, I.D., Kresge, C.T., Leonowicz, M.E., Roth, 

There is continuing work to combine unsaturated polyesters with other polymers in the form of interpenetrating networks or hybrid structures [33-37]. These attempts seem to open new fields of using unsaturated polyesters in the industry to produce items with improved physical and mechanical properties. Modified and new manufacturing processes are also expected to handle these new materials. 

Maleriul Dielectrk strenlh Volume resistivity Q-m Dielectric Dissipation Dielectric DbsipQtitMi Ctuiur 60 Hz Arc resistance Track resbtaace V Dielectric breakdown Dielectric breakdown 

Frados, Plastics Engineering Handbook , Van Nostrand Reinhold 

Gunduz, Steel-Fiber Reinforced Polymer Impregnated Concrete, in 

Agranoff, Modem Plastics Encyclopedia 1976-1977 , Mc-Graw Hill 

The fundamental surface-modification methods applied to solid fillers in polymer biocomposites, such as those previously outlined, are based on techniques and surface chemistries that have been utilized for several decades. More recently, new methods have been applied to the surface modification of solid fillers intended for use in polymeric biocomposites for orthopedic applications. Plasma polymerization forms polymeric materials, such as nanoscale-thick polymer coatings, via partially ionized gas (plasma) (Larranaga et al., 2013 Nichols et al., 2007). This rapid and solvent-free alternative approach to the conventional wet-surface modification processes previously described has several advantages that may be particularly appealing for the 

As an extension to this surface-modification method, researchers have utilized plasma polymerization of acrylic acid to immobilize biologically active molecules, such as recombinant human bone formation protein-2 (rhBMP-2). rhBMP-2 is a signaling molecule that promotes bone formation by osteoinduction that has been utilized for various orthopedic tissue-engineering applications (Kim et al., 2013). One research group modified a PCL scaffold surface with plasma-polymerized acrylic acid (PPAA) and rhBMP-2 via electrostatic interactions (Kim et al., 2013) (which is outside of the scope of this chapter). This interesting approach may be apphed to the surface modification of solid fillers and provide additional benefits compared to the surface-modification techniques currently utihzed in orthopedic polymeric biocomposite development. The acrylic acid and rhBMP-2-modifled surface showed improved cell attachment and adhesion compared to the surface with acrylic acid alone. The ability to modify the surface of a solid-filler particle in a polymeric biocomposite with a bioactive molecule, such as rhBMP-2, provides a delivery vehicle for the bioactive molecule to the polymeric biocomposite and the eventual implantation site of this biomaterial. Such surface-modification and immobihzation approaches may provide a method to control the release kinetics of attached molecules to the localized bone-defect site. 

Natural fibres are produced globally and are used to manufacture an extensive variety of traditional and novel items. The industrial use of natural fibre is in considerably small volume altogether it does not exceed 6 million tons production. These fibres supply just a few percent (2—3%) of the textile fibre market (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations statistics). 

Trade markets and exports of most natural fibres saw a decline in previous decades which was attributed to the availability of less expensive engineered synthetic substitutes. 

From different market research, it is also clear that there is great potential in the natural geotextile market and that effectively numerous geotextile makers have entered the market and numerous more are interested in entering the market. 

The concept of geotextiles as ground improvement methods to enhance the engineering properties of soil originated from the age-old use of natural fibres. Currently the geotextile market is dominated by synthetic polymer—based products produced from petrochemicals because they are durable and can be customized for specific 

One of the challenges to the electrospinning technique is for the production of uniform and fine nanofibres (with fibre diameter less than 100 nm) from 

In addition, electrospinning of polymer melt is also interesting as no solvent is involved in the process. Further research is warranted to examine the effects of both operating conditions and material properties on the properties and morphologies of nanofibres electrospun from polymer melts. 

As noted in previous editions, the trend in hydrocarbon analysis is away from manual test methods and increasingly favors automated instrumental methods. Commercial instruments are available that will perform many of the procedures described in this chapter. While ASTM committees have standardized tests based on some of these instruments, commercial development is rapid and new analytical instruments are 

Combining separation and analysis techniques (hyphenated techniques) can produce powerful tools for chtiracteriz-ing viscous oils. Thus, liquid chromatography or gas chromatography can be used to separate a sample for subsequent characterization by mass spectrometry (LC/MS or GC/MS). Research into suitable methods for the analysis of viscous oils is underway, but no standard tests have yet been prepared. Extensive research on both proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy shows promise as a tool for the analysis of lubricant base oils and other viscous oils. Both near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) and Fourier-transform IR (FTIR) are the subjects of active research into methods to characterize hydrocarbons and for quality control during production of petroleum products. Standard test methods using these techniques should become available in the future. 

Today refinery crude oils tend to be purchased from a variety of sources, which leads to variations in the wax products from the lube stream. Also paraffin and microcrystalline waxes have a large range of uses, either singly or as blends, or blended with other polymers. Therefore there is a need to characterize the refinery waxes, blended waxes, and end-user products. The main problems in characterizing waxes arise from the solid nature of the material and the difficulty in separating the matericJ into its components, particularly in the case of microcrystalline waxes. 

The separation of waxes on packed columns has been carried out since the 1960s [2,3 ], and capillary column chromatography was used in 1970 to separate a microcrystalline wax up to carbon chain length (also known as carbon number) M Csg [4]. In the early 1980s, tire manufacturers requested ASTM D02.04 to produce a capillary column gas chromatography method to analyze rubber waxes (with oil content of less than 10%) from carbon number -C,7 to n-C44. ASTM D02.10, the Subcommittee on Petroleum Wax, was asked by D02.04 to carry out the development of the method. 

Immediately after the issuance of D5442, it was realized that the Scope of the method (alkanes from n-C,y to n- C44) was applicable only to the analysis of paraffin waxes, exclud- 

Development of membranes of higher fiux with high salt rejection that will eventually allow lower transmembrane pressure. This may infiuence significantly the cost of water production, due to the possibility to operate at lower pressures, meaning lower energy consumption and lower cost equipment. 

Development of membranes of increased pathogen rejection, as well as higher antifouling potential. This would require a better understanding of the fouling mechanisms and hence the ways to reduce all types of fouling. 

Improvement of membrane resistance to oxidants, elevated temperature, and compaction. Achieving this goal may allow to extend the useful life of the membranes. 

These technology advances are expected to ascertain the position of SWRO treatment as viable and cost-competitive processes for potable water production. Above all, the key for proper operation is to maintain proper pretreatment and to pay attention to all changes in the plant. This requires skilled operations staff and, therefore, building qualified manpower capacity is essential. 

American Water Works Association (AWWA) (2007). Manual of Water Supply Practices—M46, Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration, 2nd ed. AN/WA, Denver, Colorado, p. 65. 

In the longer term, it can be expected that responsive peptides will find their way onto more complex, 3D dimensional surfaces such as microfluidic devices or porous 

Switchable and Responsive Surfaces and Materials for Biomedical Applications 

Auernheimer, J., Dahmen, C., Hersel, U., Bausch, A., Kessler, H. (2005). Journal of the American Chemical Society, 127, 16107-16110. http //dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja053648q. 

Bubert, H., Jenett, H. (2003). Surface and thin film analysis. WUey-VCH. 

Geiger, B., Spatz, J. P, Bershadsky, A. D. (2009). Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 10, 21-33. http //dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm2593. 

Mechanical improvement can be obtained by incorporating large aspect ratio fillers, which may be an advantage if they allow the thickness of the electrolyte to be reduced, thus lowering internal resistance. However, more research is needed in this field in order to get a good compromise between mechanical properties and ionic conductivity. 

In gel polymer electrolytes, the addition of fillers can have beneficial effects on both liquid electrolyte uptake and mechanical properties. However, as for SPEs, composite gel polymer electrolytes must be performed carefully in order to remove water trapped in the fillers. 

The current challenge for PEMFC is to raise the working temperature above 80 °C. Composite membranes are a potential solution. The addition of inorganic fillers induces important improvements in water retention at high temperature, conductivity, cell resistivity, mechanical properties, etc. These improvements are related to filler concentration, structure and size, interfaces, polymer matrix and membrane characteristics. It is difficult to compare these ionomer/fiUer composites because their performances depend on the electrolyte preparation and testing conditions (RH, temperature, etc.). H2/02(air) cells based on composite polymer electrolytes have been successfully operated at temperatures up to 120 °C under ambient pressure, and up to 150 °C under pressures of 3-5 atm, but more research 

An interesting idea is to produce water within a membrane by catalytic recombination of H2 and O2 on a platinum catalyst dispersed in the membrane. One of the difficulties in developing such electrolytes is preventing short circuits, which requires a uniform dispersion of Pt inside the membrane, another is the prohibitive price. Since the water produced within the membrane is insufficient to ensure good performance, external humidification is essential. The advantage of self-humidifying PEMs lies in their ability to reduce the humidity of the reactant gases. 

Anhydrous proton conducting electrolytes, such as electrolytes based on proton conducting ionic liquids, might be better adapted for PEMFC working at temperatures higher than 120 °C. 

During the last half century polymer blends, like filled polymers before, became indispensable. Combining polymers with desired properties into new materials reduces developmental cost and expense for production and storage of numerous grades. PAB seldom offers synergistic properties, but provides the possibility of creating new material with a combination of properties rarely accessible from a single polymer.  

On the basis of the historical perspective, the future evolution of PAB technology will be motivated by three principal vectors  

In the case of the first of these vectors, some elements of this future HTPB technology are mentioned in this chapter, e.g., applications in aerospace, fuel and solar cells. For example, the use of polymers and their blends in the 

Regarding the third vector, during the last few years there has been significant progress in the synthetic methods that lead to formation of self-organized macromolecular structures, based on the concept of end-groups attractive/repulsive interactions or formation of block copolymers, namely HyperMacs and HyperBlocks. Control of chain ends also offers means for efficient control of the surface properties, e.g., addition of 0.5% of multi-functional fluoroalkyl additives transforms PS surface tension to that of PTFE.  

At the same time computational methods based on the molecular mechanics, molecular dynamics (MD), Monte Carlo (MC) and ab initio methods evolved to the high level of predictive capability, accelerating development of new materials with designed properties. For the multicomponent and multiphase systems (e.g., nanocomposites, blends, composites with properties adjusted by incorporation of intercalants or compatibilizers) the most promising is the hierarchical multi-scale molecular modeling (MSMM). Thus, while such molecular simulations as MD or MC efficiently analyze the molecular structure at 0.1-10 nm, MSMM, 

One of the reasons for the use of carbon-fiber lining systems primarily as a targeted strucmral repair, rather than a continuous lining system, is the relatively high 

One concept often explored to reduce the costs has been the automation of the installation process. In recent years, several attempts have been made at robotie automation of the CFRP lining proeess as well as implementation of CFRP materials into the eured in-place pipe proeess. However, at the time of this writing, these systems are still in early development phases. 

Due to limitations in the geometry of the robotics, this type of system is most applicable for 42-in and larger diameter pipelines. When the repaired pipe section has bends or laterals as part of a continuous repair, laterals and bends are addressed using conventional carbon-fiber composites prior to transitioning back to the hybrid FRP steel system. 

Full-scale testing has been successfully performed on the hybrid FRP system (AUdirdaji et al., 2013), and multiple installations have taken place to date (Rocca et al., 2013). Additional research and development are taking place to further expand the capabilities of this pipeline strengthening system. 

Rehabilitation of Kpelines Using Fiber-reinforced Polymer (FRP) Conq osites 

The discussion in this chapter has unveiled several important characteristics of metal dusting. First of all, it occurs in carbon supersaturated environments and in a temperature range of 450-850°C. Secondly, the corrosion rate, in the case of most alloys, undergoes a maximum around 650°C, thus separating the corrosion process into a lower temperature regime where the rate increases 

27 Electron micrographs and X-ray diffraction spectra of Ti after exposure to SOCOiBOHg at 650°C for 24 hours showing outer TiOg and inner nanocrystalline TiC layers. 

28 SEM cross-section of 3-NiAI coating on Inconei 601 after corrosion in 50CO 50H2 at 650°C for 160 hours. 

3 Improving strategies for the use of traditional anti-parasitic drugs 

The limited availability of licensed efficacious treatments remains one of the key barriers to effective parasite control in aquaculture, with this situation 

ACFFA (ATLANTIC CANADA FISH FARMERS ASSOCIATION) (2011) Evaluation of Well boat technology for the treatment of sea Uce. Project Final Report. http //0101.nccdn. net/l 5/358/258/2b2/Final Report Mar 19 ll - Evaluation of Well Boat Technology for the Treatinen.pdf 

ALDERMAN, D.J. (2002) Trends in therapy and prophylaxis. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 22,117—125. 

ALLISON, R. (1962) The effects of formalin and other parasiticides upon oxygen concentrations in ponds. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeast Association of Game and Fish Commissions, 16,446-449. 

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M. A. Rogowski and co-workers, ia B. S. Meldmm and M. WiUiams, eds.. Current and Future Trends in Anticonvulsant, Anxiety, and Stroke Therapy, Wiley-Liss, New York, 1990, pp. 91—111. 

Future Trends. In addition to the commercialization of newer extraction/ decantation product/catalyst separations technology, there have been advances in the development of high reactivity 0x0 catalysts for the conversion of low reactivity feedstocks such as internal and a-alkyl substituted a-olefins. These catalysts contain (as ligands) ortho-/-butyl or similarly substituted arylphosphites, which combine high reactivity, vastiy improved hydrolytic stabiUty, and resistance to degradation by product aldehyde, which were deficiencies of eadier, unsubstituted phosphites. Diorganophosphites (28), such as stmcture (6), have enhanced stabiUty over similarly substituted triorganophosphites. 

Future Trends. Methods of laser cooling and trapping are emerging as of the mid-1990s that have potential new analytical uses. Many of the analytical laser spectroscopies discussed herein were first employed for precise physical measurements in basic research. AppHcations to analytical chemistry occurred as secondary developments from 10 to 15 years later. 

B. I. Fleming, "Chlorine Caustic iu Pulp Bleaching Future Trends," The 2nd World Chlor-Alkali Symposium, Washiagton, D.C., Sept. 19—21,1990. 

Many distributions occurring in business situations are not symmetric but skewed, and the normal distribution cui ve is not a good fit. However, when data are based on estimates of future trends, the accuracy of the normal approximation is usually acceptable. This is particularly the case as the number of component variables Xi, Xo, etc., in Eq. (9-74) increases. Although distributions of the individual variables (xi, Xo, etc.) may be skewed, the distribution of the property or variable c tends to approach the normal distribution. 

Pukiiowskii A.V. Muitipie-eiement extra agents and methods in agrochemicai inspection conceptions, principies and future trends. M. CIACI, 2003. Pi04. 

The recent development and comparative application of modern separation techniques with regard to determination of alkylphosphonic acids and lewisite derivatives have been demonstrated. This report highlights advantages and shortcomings of GC equipped with mass spectrometry detector and HPLC as well as CE with UV-Vis detector. The comparison was made from the sampling point of view and separation/detection ability. The derivatization procedure for GC of main degradation products of nerve agents to determine in water samples was applied. Direct determination of lewisite derivatives by HPLC-UV was shown. Also optimization of indirect determination of alkylphosphonic acids in CE-UV was developed. Finally, the new instrumental development and future trends will be discussed. 

The past and future trends in the development of coatings are shown in Figure 11-10. Present-day coatings last 10-20 times longer than coatings used 10 years ago. Coated blades last up to two times longer than uncoated blades in the field. Figure 11-11 is a comparison between the various types of... 

Future trends will include studies of grain-dependent surface adsorption phenomena, such as gas-solid reactions and surface segregation. More frequent use of the element-specific CEELS version of REELM to complement SAM in probing the conduction-band density of states should occur. As commercially available SAM instruments improve their spot sizes, especially at low Eq with field emission sources, REELM will be possible at lateral resolutions approaching 10 nm without back scattered electron problems. 

Eor information on both the history and principles of, and future trends in, XRE, please refer to the artide by Jenkins in this book. Eor TXRE see the outstanding handbook by Klockenkamper [4.21] and current reviews [4.22-4.24]. This contribution relies extensively on these referenced works. 

Goodfellow, H. D. Future Trends in Design of EAF Fume. Systems. 5th European Electric Steel Congress, Paris, June 19-2.1, 1995. 

For llie most part future trends can be found in hazard prevention. 

Future trends for the evolution of EMCS are likely to involve improvements in user interface, easier access, better controls, and advances m integration, namely including the following ... 

Light olefins, particularly tertiary olefins, are very reactive in forming ozone and also increase gasoline pool RVP. However, the future trend of most FCC operations is projected to produce more olefin feed, but little will reach the gasoline pool. This is because olefins, particularly the C4 and Cg olefins, can either be alkylated and/or etherified, or used for petrochemical feedstock. 

Health-related institutions again show the future trend in a microcosm. Suitable incineration facilities may determine the ability of such institutions to function effectively in an urban environment. When adequate processes for solid waste and air pollution control by incineration are developed, the use of combustible, one-way trip disposables for all incoming materials can be expected to accelerate. This will result in a decrease in the need for a direct fuel supply. 

It seems unlikely that feedbacks due to species replacement have begun since the beginning of the Mauna Loa record because compositional changes due to climate change will take decades and have not yet been documented on a wide scale. However, this fact increases the importance of such feedbacks to future trends in atmospheric CO2 when these feedbacks become important it is highly unlikely that positive and negative feedbacks will exactly cancel each other and more likely that one or the other will prevail and cause deviations from current trends in atmospheric CO2. 

The series Topics in Current Chemistry presents critical reviews of the present and future trends in modem chemical research. The scope includes all areas of chemical science, including the interfaces with related disciphnes such as biology, medicine, and materials science. 

Several environment-friendly surface preparation for the treatment of mbber soles with radiations have been recently studied. These treatments are clean (no chemicals or reactions by-products are produced) and fast, and furthermore online bonding at shoe factory can be produced, so the future trend in surface modification of substrates in shoe industry will be likely directed to the industrial application of those treatments. Corona discharge, low-pressure RF gas plasma, and ultraviolet (UV) treatments have been successfully used at laboratory scale to improve the adhesion of several sole materials in shoe industry. Recently, surface modification of SBR and TR by UV radiation has been industrially demonstrated in shoe industry... 

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