Solid states

Solid substances have a definite volume and shape. The particles (atoms or molecules) in solids are very close to each other - there is a minute amount of space between atoms or molecules. Solids can be picked up and carried around without a special container. 

All pencils and their containers are solid and have a oertain shape. 

IS Although many gases are colorless, some of them are tinted. For example, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has a reddish -brown color and is an extremely toxic gas  

Liquids have definite volume, but no definite shape. Liquids can flow, be poured, and take the shape of their container. The particles in liquids are more loosely contained than those of solids. Hence, that s how liquids can flow. 

15 Solid State. - The X-ray geometry of 1,3-dicyanobenzene has been compared with a HF/6-31+G(d) structure in the gas-phase. The distortion of the benzene ring in 1,3-dicyanobenzene has been compared and discussed in relation to the o- and /i-isomers of dicyanobenzene. The differences in the C-C bond lengths of the phenyl ring have been analysed in terms of p. The electron density and its Laplacian were analysed in terms of the topological properties at the BCPs. 

The topology of p for fee transition metals (y5-Co, Ni, Cu, Rh, Pd, Ag, Ir, Pt, and Au) was studied and all BCPs in the unit cell systematically calculated. The network of bond paths describing the atomic connectivity confirms that the crystal graph of these metals is the result of packing octahedra and tetrahedra. A good correlation between the experimental cohesive energy and p at the BCP corroborates that this parameter provides a measine of the bond strength in transition metals. 

Wozniak and Mallinson studied proton sponges, such as l,8-bis(dimethyl-amino)naphthalene (DMAN), which are aromatic diamines characterized by exceptional basicity. For these compounds protonation causes substantial redistribution of p, which may be traced by observing the changes in the properties of p at BCPs. 

Mori-Sanchez et al examined the polarity inversion in the electron density of the BP crystal, and found unusual properties using AIM. The standard polarity g +p - found at the zinc-blende equilibrium geometry suffers a reversal under the application of hydrostatic pressure. The inversion occius through an intermediate 

The solid state structures of clusters 37 and 38 as their Ph4P salts (33, 211) are provided in Fig. 20. It is immediately apparent that the desired 

Before proceeding further, the symbols and nomenclature of Fig. 21 are introduced. Note the cubane structural abbreviation for the cluster and the numbering scheme for the ligand arms and legs. 

In the case of 37, this result requires conformational modification of 

A wide variety of substitution reactions specific to the unique subsite have been carried out in aprotic solvents such as acetonitrile, DMF, and Me2SO at ambient temperature (33, 216-219). A number of these rections are depicted in Figs. 23 and 24, and underscore the reactivity of chloride cluster 37 and the utility of the ligand design. The chloride-thiolate interchange 37-39 in Fig. 23 is quantitative in both directions with stoichiometric quantities of reagents (33). The first examples of [4Fe-4S] double cubanes were obtained by reactions with dithiolates (40) and sulfide (41) (216). Reaction with cyanide is complete with one equivalent to yield 42. Earlier, 

All reactions in Fig. 24 afford products in which the coordination number at the unique subsite is 5 or 6. Of product clusters 49-55, 50 is the first organometallic derivative of a [4Fe-4Sp cluster, and 49, 51, and 55 are the initial examples of six-coordinate subsites. Another example of a substituted cluster identified by H NMR is provided by the spectrum in Fig. 25. Here 1 equivalent of tacn (1,4,7-triazacyclononane) reacts quantitatively with 37 to afford 49, the 4-Me, 5-H, and 6-Me resonances of which are substantially shifted from their positions in the chloride cluster. The spectrum is indicative of trigonal symmetry. Certain of the clusters 40-55 are considered in subsequent sections. 

A solid is a nearly incompressible state of matter with a well-defined shape, because the units (atoms, molecules, or ions) making up the solid are in close contact and in fixed positions or sites. In the next section, we will look at the kinds of forces holding the units together in different types of solids. In later sections, we will look at crystalline solids and their structure. 

Investigation of tautomeric equilibria in the solid state by NMR is not so common. However, apart from the different recording technique, the situation is in most 

The sp hybrids about the C atom are used to form the four bonds in diamond, methane, and all alkanes. The sp hybrids are used to form the double bond in all alkenes. The sp hybrids are used in the triple bond in acetylene. The shapes of the molecules of the simple gases ethane, ethylene, and acetylene are well described by the hybrid model. (See Table 3.) 

All three compounds bum in air. Acetylene is used for welding ethylene is polymerized to give polyethylene, a plastic common in every kitchen. 

Molecules, such as ammonia, that have a lone pair of electrons are able to donate these two electrons to an empty orbital on a metal atom, to form a coordinate or dative bond. A typical example is the deep blue coordination complex of copper, [Cu(NH3)4]2+, which has four Cu(N bonds in a square plane. 

Similarly, a proton will attach itself to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule to give the tetrahedral NH4 ammonium cation. The lone pair on the N atom in N(CH3)3 will bond to the empty orbital on the B atom in B(CH3)3 to give the compound (CH3)3N—B(CH3)3. 

The F anion will donate a pair of electrons to the B atom in the BF3 molecule to form the tetrahedral BF4 anion. This type of bonding where one atom, the donor, supphes both electrons to form the bond to the second atom, the acceptor, is termed Coordinate, or sometimes Dative. 

The quantities and their symbols given here have been selected from more extensive lists of IUPAP [4] and ISO [5.p]. See also the International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A [62]. 

In each of these cases, when the letter symbol is replaced by numbers it is customary to omit the commas. For a single plane or crystal face, or a specific direction, a negative number is indicated by a bar over the number. 

Since the early 1950s, 1R spectroscopy has been a routine analytical tool for lignin chemists. In the past, spectra were recorded using the so-called dispersive technique, i.e., with grating-type or prism instruments. In the last decade, Fourier transform infrared (FT1R) spectrometers have become increasingly available for routine laboratory work. 

(2002). Survey of Semiconductor Physics, Vol. 11. New York John Wiley. 

(1998). Photovoltaic Materials. London Imperial College Press. 

C Virshup, G. F. and Schultz, J. C. (2000). Proceedings of the 21st IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf. Kissimee, FL, p. 179. 

Fahrenbruch, A. L., and Bube, R. H. (1983). Fundamentals in Solar Cells. New York Academic Press. 

(2001). Solar Energy, the State of the Art. London James James. 

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Chromates III). Mixed oxides, e.g. FeCr204, having spinel structures and prepared by solid state reactions. 

Copper(II) oxide, CuO. Black solid formed by heating Cu(OH)2, Cu(N03)2, etc. Dissolves in acid to Cu(II) salts, decomposes to CU2O at 800 C. Forms cuprates in solid state reactions. A cuprate(III), KCUO2, is also known. 

Plumbaies IV), e.g. ICjPbOj, are formed by solid state reactions and plunibates containing [Pb(OH)6] " ions are formed from aqueous solution. 

Manganaies IV), manganites. Mixed-metal oxides containing Mn(IV). Prepared by solid state reactions. 

Dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3. Only stable in solid state (m.p. — 102 C). Pale blue solid giving deep blue liquid the gas contains some ONNO2 molecules. Prepared from NO and O2 or NO and N2O4 with freezing decomposes to NO and NO,. 

Fig. 1 shows the block diagram of the vibrometer, in which the most sensible to small phase variations interferometric scheme is employed. It consists of the microwave and the display units. The display unit consists of the power supply 1, controller 2 of the phase modulator 3, microprocessor unit 9 and low-frequency amplifier 10. The microwave unit contains the electromechanical phase modulator 3, a solid-state microwave oscillator 4, an attenuator 5, a bidirectional coupler 6, a horn antenna 7 and a microwave detector 11. The horn antenna is used for transmitting the microwave and receiving the reflected signal, which is mixed with the reference signal in the bidirectional coupler. In the reference channel the electromechanical phase modulator is used to provide automatic calibration of the instrument. To adjust the antenna beam to the object under test, the microwave unit is placed on the platform which can be shifted in vertical and horizontal planes. 

We attempt to delineate between surface physical chemistry and surface chemical physics and solid-state physics of surfaces. We exclude these last two subjects, which are largely wave mechanical in nature and can be highly mathematical they properly form a discipline of their own. 

L. The liquid-expanded, L phase is a two-dimensionally isotropic arrangement of amphiphiles. This is in the smectic A class of liquidlike in-plane structure. There is a continuing debate on how best to formulate an equation of state of the liquid-expanded monolayer. Such monolayers are fluid and coherent, yet the average intermolecular distance is much greater than for bulk liquids. A typical bulk liquid is perhaps 10% less dense than its corresponding solid state. 

Dislocation theory as a portion of the subject of solid-state physics is somewhat beyond the scope of this book, but it is desirable to examine the subject briefly in terms of its implications in surface chemistry. Perhaps the most elementary type of defect is that of an extra or interstitial atom—Frenkel defect [110]—or a missing atom or vacancy—Schottky defect [111]. Such point defects play an important role in the treatment of diffusion and electrical conductivities in solids and the solubility of a salt in the host lattice of another or different valence type [112]. Point defects have a thermodynamic basis for their existence in terms of the energy and entropy of their formation, the situation is similar to the formation of isolated holes and erratic atoms on a surface. Dislocations, on the other hand, may be viewed as an organized concentration of point defects they are lattice defects and play an important role in the mechanism of the plastic deformation of solids. Lattice defects or dislocations are not thermodynamic in the sense of the point defects their formation is intimately connected with the mechanism of nucleation and crystal growth (see Section IX-4), and they constitute an important source of surface imperfection. 

N. B. Hannay, Treatise on Solid State Chemistry, Vol. 6A, Surfaces I, Plenum, New York, 1976. 

W. E. Gamer, Chemistry of the Solid State, Academic, New York, 1955. 

J. Callejas-Femandez, R. Martinez-Garcia, F. J. de las Nieves Lopez, and R. Hidalgo-Alvarez, Solid State Ionics, 63-65, 791 (1993). 

P. Meakin, CRC Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Science, Vol. 13, Grand Rapids, MI, 1986, p. 143. 

A superb treatment of applied molecular orbital theory and its application to organic, inorganic and solid state chemistry. Perhaps the best source for appreciating the power of the independent-particle approximation and its remarkable ability to account for qualitative behaviour in chemical systems. 

Traditionally one categorizes matter by phases such as gases, liquids and solids. Chemistry is usually concerned with matter m the gas and liquid phases, whereas physics is concerned with the solid phase. However, this distinction is not well defined often chemists are concerned with the solid state and reactions between solid-state phases, and physicists often study atoms and molecular systems in the gas phase. The tenn condensed phases usually encompasses both the liquid state and the solid state, but not the gas state. In this section, the emphasis will be placed on the solid state with a brief discussion of liquids. 

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