Recent developments

Recently, applications of room temperature ionic liquids to electrochemical devices are very attractive in both scientific and technological fields. In the area of the EAP 

Leo and eo-workers [30] have developed a method of using ionic liquids as solvents for the IPMC actuators and sensors in order to use them in air. They successfully fabricated the IPMC aetuator using the ionie liquid working in air for a long time. 

Polymer-supported Ionic liquid electrolyte layer 

The actuator film was fabricated by layer-by-layer easting of electrode-layer (single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and ionic liquids (ILs)) and electrolyte-layer (ILs) components in a gelatinous mixture of poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVdF(HFP)) as a polymer support and a solvent. The actuator can be activated by low voltage ( 3 V) and is long-lived upon operation in air. The bueky gel acmator ean be used for various applications as well as for IPMC actuators. 

In this chapter, the fundamental aspects of the ionic polymer-metal composite (IPMC) actuators have been described. The IPMC actuators have many unique characteristics such as softness, large bending response, low voltage drive, easy forming into any shape, and so on, which are suitable for biomedical applications. In the next chapter, the biomedical applications of IPMC actuators are described. 

In recent years, a number of new approaches have been reported for obtaining controlled NCA polymerizations. These approaches share a common theme in that 

The authors concluded that the side reactions normally observed in amine-initiated NCA polymerizations are simply a consequence of impurities. Since the main side reactions in these polymerizations do not involve reaction with adventitious impurities such as water, but instead reactions with monomer, solvent, or polymer (i.e., termination by reaction of the amine-end with an ester side chain, attack of DMF by the amine-end, or chain transfer to monomer) [11, 12], this conclusion does not seem to be well justified. It is likely that the role of impurities (e.g., water) in these polymerizations is very complex. A possible explanation for the polymerization control observed under high vacuum is that the impurities act to catalyze side reactions with monomer, polymer, or solvent. In this scenario, it is reasonable to speculate that polar species such as water can bind to monomers or the propagating chain-end and thus influence their reactivity. 

Another innovative approach to controlling amine-initiated NCA polymerizations was reported in 2003 by Schlaad and coworkers [20]. Their strategy was to avoid formation of NCA anions, which cause significant chain termination after rearranging to isocyanocarboxylates [11, 12], through use of primary amine hydrochloride salts as initiators. The reactivity of amine hydrochlorides with NCAs was first explored by the group of Knobler, who found that they could react 

Although more studies need to be performed to study the scope and generality of this system, the use of amine hydrochloride salts as initiators for controlled NCA polymerizations shows tremendous promise. Fast, reversible deactivation of a reactive species to obtain controlled polymerization is a proven concept in polymer chemistry, and this system can be compared to the persistent radical effect employed in all controlled radical polymerization strategies [37]. Like those systems, success of this method requires a carefully controlled matching of the 

The polymerizations initiated by HMDS and N-TMS amines usually complete within 24 h at ambient temperature with quantitative monomer consumption. These polymerizations in general are slower than those mediated by Deming s Ni(0) or Co (0) initiators (about 30-60 min at ambient temperature) [19, 24, 25], but are much faster than those initiated by amines at low temperature or using amine hydrochloride initiators [20]. These HMDS and N-TMS amine-mediated NCA polymerizations can also be applied to the preparation of block copolypeptides of defined sequence and composition [22]. This organosilicon-mediated NCA polymerization, which was also shown by Zhang and coworkers to be useful for controlled polymerization of y-3-chloropropanyl-L-Glu NCA [43], offers an advantage for the preparation of polypeptides with defined C-terminal end-groups. 

Until recently, patents had a term of 17 years from issuance (35 USC 154 prior to 8 June 1995). Allowing the patent term to run from the date of issuance and not from the date of filing of an application for a patent was particularly important for patent applications in technologies where (i) the prosecution period (i.e., the period from application filing to patent issuance) is long and (ii) the technology continues to retain value many years after the patent issues. 

Patent term Patentability under 103 Seventeen years from issuance Method needed to be independently patentable over prior methods Twenty years from application filing Method patentable if product produced is patentable - biotech area only 

There is a recent case demonstrating how 271(g) can be used to prevent importation of a protein (specifically a hormone) when the patentee only has claims on a process for making a plasmid used to make the hormone [13], Specifically, in that case Genentech 

Recent developments in this field are surveyed but, although comparisons of the merits of different designs are presented, no systematic and exhaustive Inventory of all devices that have been manufactured or described in the literature will be given. The following aspects are considered  

Detectors for chromatography differ from other measuring devices in that they are frequently described and sold without any adequate specification with regard to peak broadening effects (or, in more general terms, dynamic behaviour or frequency range). No one would consider buying a recorder or an oscilloscope without 

This situation is undesirable because in recent years column performance has increased considerably, and now the performance of very efficient columns cannot be measured and used properly with much of the commercial equipment available. 

The demands can be derived simply from basic equations. The time variance of 

In this expression, Hlv is a function of column performance and the other two factors describe the influence of the particular separation problem at hand. A 5000-plate column, a capacity factor of 1 and s/v = 10 msec (rather conservative for modern efficient LC columns) would require a detector with 0.45 sec. 

The three main recent developments in sulfuric acidmaking have been  

There have been a small number of reports published recently that describe the development of purpose-built batteries for RAPS systems. A VRLA battery for use in PV power systems has been described by Shiomi et al. [27]. The negative plates contain a high level of carbon, but the particle size and concentration of the additive are not described. The recommended level of carbon is simply given as ten times normal levels . The type of VRLA battery used in the experiments is also unclear. Batteries with and without the additional carbon were operated under simulated PV duty for extended periods. Increasing the carbon by ten-fold was found to extend the cycle-life of the batteries from 400 to 1000 cycles. This improvement was attributed to the formation of a conductive network of carbon around the peripheries of lead sulfate crystals. The subsequent increase in conductivity was claimed to improve the rechargeability of the negative plates and, thereby, to suppress the accumulation of lead sulfate. 

A flat-plate, gel battery has also been specifically designed for RAPS duty, especially in high-temperature applications [23]. The battery has thick positive plates (5.5 mm), has a large reservoir of moderate strength acid, and is constructed using an ultra-pure form of lead [28] that endows the battery with a high charging dfidency. It is claimed that the battery can provide over 1100 cycles to 100% DoD (3-h rate, 25°C) before the capacity decreases to 75% of the nominal value. 

Significant developments in high temperature tribology have been reported recently. However, most of these developments are confined to sliding wear and erosive wear only. As mentioned previously, the literature on elevated temperature abrasive wear is rather limited. Consequently, no effort is made here to highlight recent developments in high temperature abrasive wear. 

It was demonstrated by Pauschitz et al. [21,23,24,79] that the nature of the glazed layers formed exhibits a variety of characteristics. Wearing conditions, wearing material and mating material govern formation of these layers. These layers determine the friction coefficient and the wear rate. They differ in physical appearance, mechanical properties, chemical compositions and failure mechanisms. Pauschitz etal. found that the following four different situations, were possible  

In contrast, if the mating surface is softer than the wearing material, a transfer layer (TL) is formed. TL formation takes place at near ambient temperature. As the transfer layer is primarily from the mating surface, the 

The features of these layers were validated by Pauschitz et al. [79,21] using a series of systematic but comprehensive experiments. The formation of these layers and their failure mechanisms are presented in Fig. 6.16 schematically [79]. Their presence can explain all the observed behaviour of elevated temperature sliding wear of metallic materials [20]. Furthermore, by carrying out systematic chemical analysis of the worn surface and the wear debris it is possible to identify the various types of layers that form during elevated temperature wear. Further, systematic study by optical interferometer can also identify the types of layers that form and their failure mechanisms. By using both methods a complete failure analysis of the worn surface can be carried out without destroying the wearing sample. 

16 Schematic representation of the various types of layers that formed during elevated temperature sliding wear and their failure mechanisms [24]. 

Ligand development is still the major subject of publications about hydroformyla-tion. There are some interesting recent results. 

In order to investigate the electronic effects of equatorial diphosphines, electron-withdrawing substituents on the aryl rings were synthesized and tested [239]. The introduction of an electron-withdrawing group in the BISBI ligand increased the linear aldehyde selectivity in the hydroformylation of 1-hexene up to an l b ratio of 123 1. 

Novel water-soluble calix[4]arenes with phosphane-containing groups were synthesized by Shimizu et al. The beneficial effect of water-soluble phospha- 

Bulky diphosphites not only express a high selectivity toward 1-alkenes [255] but also for less reactive internal [256] and functionalized alkenes. Recently DSM and Du Pont reported on a ligand (24) which has a high regio- and chemoselectivity for the hydroformylation of methyl 3-pentenoate [253]. The synthesis of monophenols containing bulky substituents (25) is described in patents from Mitsubishi [257]. High yields with 1-alkenes and l/b ratios up to 20 are reported. 

Recently van Leeuwen reported the fiigt crystal structure of the diphosphite dicarbonyl rhodium catalyst HRh(CO)2(P P) [258]. Bomer et al. developed a new class of phosphonites which show promising results for the isomerization and subsequent hydroformylation of internal olefins [259]. The number of phosphite ligands based on supramolecular backbones such as calix[4]arenes is growing [260]. They are attractive because of their well defined structure combined with the ability to adopt several discrete conformations. Calix[4]arene diphosphites and calix[6]arene phosphites were first developed by BASF [261]. In 

Several modifieations of the two basie steam and water injeetion plants (STIG and EGT) have been proposed in reeent years. Rather than analysing all these developments in detail here, they are first briefly deseribed subsequently the thermodynamie intentions of these modified eyeles are diseussed, together with some of the parametrie studies whieh have been made by other authors. 

As this chaper goes to press, there is still more activity in the supercritical microemulsion area. A revieW emphasizing experimental techniques and theoretical explanations has appeared. A recent paper by Johnston et,al. l reports some solubility of a protein in a COj microemulsion. Another paper by Jackson et al. describes the formation of supercritical fluid microemulsions in environmentally friendly CFC s. We expect many more developments in these areas over the next few years. 

While there have been a number of papers written on the basic structure problem since Ref. [40] appeared, [55], none of them go qualitatively further than the calculations of that work. Curiously, an experimental paper, [5], claims to have reduced the theoretical error through comparison with new measurements of transition matrix elements. It is the author s opinion, however, that this essentially semiempirical approach is dangerous, and prefers to leave the 1 percent error estimate unchanged at present. However, there are three places in which considerable activity has taken place that we address in turn, the vector polarizability / , the Breit interaction, and radiative corrections. 

A variety of industrial catalytic processes employ small metal-particle catalysts on porous inorganic supports. The particle sizes are increasingly in the nanometre size range which gives rise to nanocatalysts. As described in chapter 1, commonly used supports are ceramic oxides, like alumina and silica, or carbon. Metal (or metallic) catalysts in catalytic technologies contain a high dispersion of nanoscopic metal particles on ceramic oxide or carbon supports. This is to maximize the surface area with a minimum amount of metal for catalytic reactions. It is desirable to have all of the metal exposed to reactants. 

This chapter aims to present some recent results on the characterization and properties of small metallic and intermetallic particles (a few nanometres (nm) in diameter) supported on ceramic oxide substrates or on carbon. Due to the rapidly expanding development in materials sciences and technology and, 

Nitrocubanes are probably the most powerful explosives with a predicted detonation velocity of 10,000 ms-1. Cubanes were first synthesised at the University of Chicago, USA by Eaton and Cole in 1964. The US Army Armament Research Development Centre (ARDEC) then funded development into the formation of octanitrocubane [(ONC) (C8N8016)] and heptanitrocubane [(HpNC) (C8N7014)]. ONC and HpNC were successfully synthesised in 1997 and 2000 respectively by Eaton and co-workers. The basic structure of ONC is a cubane molecule where all the hydrogens have been replaced by nitro groups (1.6). HpNC is denser than ONC and predicted to be a more powerful, shock-insensitive explosive. 

The research into energetic molecules which produce a large amount of gas per unit mass, led to molecular structures which have a high hydrogen to carbon ratio. Examples of these structures are hydrazinium nitroformate (HNF) and ammonium dinitramide (ADN). The majority of the development of HNF has been carried out in The Netherlands whereas the development of ADN has taken place in Russia, USA and Sweden. ADN is a dense non chlorine containing powerful oxidiser and is an interesting candidate for replacing ammonium perchlorate as an oxidiser for composite propellants. ADN is less sensitive to impact than RDX and HMX, but more sensitive to friction and electrostatic spark. 

A cracking process, the dealkylation of alkylbenzenes, became an established industrial synthesis for aromatics production. Alkylbenzenes (toluene, xylenes, tri-methylbenzenes) and alkylnaphthalenes are converted to benzene and naphthalene, respectively, in this way. The hydrodealkylation of toluene to benzene is the most important reaction, but it is the most expensive of all benzene manufacturing processes. This is due to the use of expensive hydrogen rendering hydrodealkylation too highly dependent on economic conditions. 

Dealkylation and isomerization (disproportionation) processes used in the manufacture of benzene and xylenes are discussed in Sections 4.5.2 and 5.5.4. 

Hydrocracking, the other major cracking operation, is predicted to grow approximately 3-5% annually, mainly because it operates at relatively high hydrogen pressure (typically 100 atm), which results in high removal rates of S and N heteroatoms from the feedstock and deep saturation of aromatic compounds. Consequently, it produces middle distillates with excellent product qualities, namely, jet and diesel fractions with very low sulfur content and very good combustion properties. 

The catalysts applied in hydroprocessing operations are typically sulfided CoO—Mo03—A1203 or NiO—M0O3—A1203. The results of relevant studies281 and the application in refinery processes of these and other transition-metal sulfide catalysts were reviewed.282 Selection of catalysts and reactors for particular feeds and products is also an important issue.257,280,283,284 

Extensive studies describe the development of new materials, such as transition-metal nitrides and oxynitrides, as new potential catalysts for hydroprocessing operations. Studies were performed to acquire information on the effect of high levels of ZSM-5 additive on light olefins and gasoline composition in FCC.289 It was found that ZSM-5 can substantially increase propylene and butenes, and 

Posner et al. found that commercial aluminium oxide is able to promote the oxidation of alcohols employing chloral as hydride acceptor.30 The reaction operates at room temperature in inert solvents like CCI4 and surprisingly no base-induced condensations are reported. Basically, the same experimental conditions were later applied for the oxidation of cyclobutanol,31 a compound with a great propensity to fragmentation under the action of other oxidants. 

A modified Oppenauer oxidation, using activated neutral chromatographic alumina and chloral in CCI4 at room temperature, allows the oxidation of cyclobutanol in  

Chemically modified AI2O3,32 and an aluminium and magnesium carbonate33 have been studied in Oppenauer oxidations employing oxidants other than chloral. 

Very recently, Maruoka s team developed two highly sophisticated and efficient aluminium compounds for the Oppenauer oxidation of alcohols. Thus, the complex aluminium phenoxide 67, containing two aluminium atoms, is able to catalyze in a quantity as low as 5 mol%—the oxidation of alcohols with pivalaldehyde at room temperature.37 

In this very elegant transformation induced by aluminium compound 67 present in a 5 mol% proportion, an aldehyde operates as a hydride acceptor in the oxidation of a secondary alcohol present in the same molecule. 

In his opening remarks at the GRC, Boyd pointed out that computational chemistry is not just quantum chemistry, not just molecular dynamics, or not just molecular modeling. Each approach has an appropriate and valuable role. The conference was intended to achieve a fair balance of various aspects of computational chemistry. A key feature of the conference, as at the first one, was a vigorous mix of academic and industrial scientists. A melding of these scientists advances the science in interesting, useful directions most quickly. 

Besides the 19 full lectures and discussions, the session chairs were allowed to give short talks. More than 55 poster papers were presented at the two evening poster sessions. The original program is reproduced in Appendix 2. Again it is interesting to see the names and the work under way about 10 years ago. 

Since 1986, the GRC on Computational Chemistry has succeeded in having a turnover of those attending. This infusion of fresh faces and ideas is keeping the conference up to date and moving according to the dictates of the field. The conferences, the most recent of which was in 1998, are well attended. The recent chairs have somewhat avoided the problem of oversubscription by not publicizing the meetings as heavily as were the early con- 

At the 1998 conference, repeated ties in the voting for the next vice-chair were broken when a quantum chemist. Prof. Michael Zerner, teamed up with a molecular simulations chemist. Dr. Bernard Brooks, to serve as co-vice-chairs in 2000. 

August 18-22,1986 July 4-8,1988 June 18-22,1990 June 29-July 3,1992 July 4-8,1994 June 30-July 5,1996 

Liquid-Phase ChemicallReduction System for Site Remediation 

This section introduces the chemical reduction/oxidation process (Redox), its applica-hihty, limitations, and performance for site remediation involving both soil cleaning and groundwater decontamination. Chemical reduction/oxidation (Redox process) chemically converts hazardous contaminants to nonhazardous or less-toxic compounds that are more stable, less mobile, and/or inert. The oxidizing agents most commonly used are ozone, hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorites, chlorine, and chlorine dioxide (50-59). 

Data for soil, sediment, and sludge are also required for successful project completion. Treatability tests should be conducted to identify parameters such as water, alkaline metals, and humus content in the soils the presence of multiple phases and total organic halides that could affect processing time and cost (22). 

ITRI has developed and patented processes for preparing and utilizing stable aqueous colloidal sols of tin(IV) oxide and related materials. These products, which contain nanometer-scale particulate tin oxide, are useful precursors for the synthesis of ceramic bodies, powders, and coatings, and may And application in encapsulated pigments, electroconductive materials, catalysts, and transparent tin oxide Aims on glass and other substrates. 

In the context of Are retardancy, aqueous tin colloids are particularly suitable for treatment of hydrophilic natural fibers. In addition to earlier studies using soluble tin salts, ITRI has developed processes 

Despite their clear technical benetits, including non-toxicity and excellent smoke-suppressant activity, markets for ZHS and ZS have been somewhat limited to date, primarily because of their relatively high price compared with certain traditional flame retardants, particularly Sb203. Consequently, recent studies have focused on the development of more cost effective tin-based systems. 

Although ultraflne and colloidal additives have been shown to exhibit significant performance benefits in systems where good dispersion can be achieved, agglomeration of ultraflne particles and the 

Coated fillers have been evaluated in a range of halogen-containing polymer systems, including rigid and flexible polychloroprene (Neoprene), and in thermoplastic and thermosetting materials 

Perrin and Arrhenius (47) have studied the basic hydrolysis of cyclic ami-dines 214 and 215. They found that the primary product of hydrolysis of 214 (or 215) is solely the aminoamide 21 (or 217), and the lactam 218 (or 219) is a secondary product which is formed from the corresponding aminoamide. 

These results can be readily explained. For instance, the reaction of cyclic amidine 214 with hydroxide ion in water must give first the tetrahedral intermediate 220, which after appropriate proton transfer (- 221 ) can only give the aminoamide 216 with stereoelectronic control. In order to form the lactam 218, intermediate 220 must undergo a conformational change to intermediate 222 followed by an appropriate proton transfer (+223). Since lactam 218 is not observed under kinetically controlled conditions, the conformational change 220 222 cannot compete with the breakdown of 220 via 221. Lactam 218 is then slowly formed from aminoamide 21 6 intermediate 222. 

Recently, Eschenmoser, Ounitz, and co-workers (48) have reported the hydrolysis of tricyclic ketene N,Q-aceta1 224 which yields only arainopropionic acid ester 225. The first step in this reaction must be the protonation of 224 which gives the anti imidate salt 2. Since anti imidate salts always 

Johnson. Nalley, Weidig, and Arfan (50) have investigated the stereochemistry of the reaction of sodium methoxide with the isomeric O-alkylbenzo-hydroximoyl chloride 2 and 230 in dimethylsulfoxide-methanol (9 1). They found that 227 gave almost exclusively the -isomer 22 while 2 gave a mixture of and isomers 229 and 233 where the E isomer largely predominates. 

The authors have rationalized their results on the basis of the principle of stereoelectronic control. The reaction of methoxide ion on 227 gives the Intermediate 228 which can eject chloride ion to give the Z isomer 2. The 

Obviously, solid rocket propellant compositions have advanced considerably since the days of gunpowder, and it might be mentioned, in passing, that even as late as the Second World War, the Allies held the 

The firework mentality also decreed that even if the range was achievable, in order for an unguided rocket to follow a rainbow trajectory across the English Channel and fall, under gravity, onto London, the launch angle would have to be impossibly precise - about half a degree from the vertical, in fact. 

Both arguments were flawed, of course, and Allied Intelligence later showed that the 14 ton V2 rocket bomb was in fact powered with liquid propellant, was guided using gyroscopes, and did indeed carry one ton of explosive. And on the 3rd September 1944 the first V2 fell on London. Some firework  

There is nothing to prevent the firework manufacturers from using military-type propellants, of course, and this is exactly what the Russians do when making rockets to reach astonishing heights in firework displays above the tall buildings in Moscow. 

Military propellants are based on relatively powerful oxidisers and fuels of high calorific value in order to develop an improved thrust or impulse. Thus the most commonly-used oxidisers are potassium perchlorate, ammonium perchlorate or more esoteric compounds such as 

At the same time as Squibb and Merck developed the first ACE inhibitors, medicinal chemists at DuPont and Takeda focused on angiotensin II receptor 

An alternative option for the treatment of hypertension was pursued with direct renin inhibitors. [21 ] Monoclonal antibodies, directed against renin, had shown blood pressure lowering properties in animal models. However, due to their immunogenicity and mandatory parenteral administration, they proved not suitable for long term treatment. 

The first low-molecular weight renin inhibitors were aspartyl protease inhibitors from Actinomycetes, such as pepstatin from Streptomyces testaceus. Pep-statin, originally discovered as apicomolar inhibitor of pepsin, is ahexa-peptide containing the unusual amino acid statine (Sta, (3S,4S)-4-amino-3-hydroxy-6-methylheptanoic acid). [22] Pepstatin is a transition-state inhibitor, suffering the same major drawback as antibodies, namely a lack of oral bioavailabUity. 

19 Aliskiren (Rasile, Tekturna ) is the first direct renin inhibitor, which was brought on to the market by Novartis in 2007 for the treatment ofessentiaihypertension. 

In understanding the physiological role of ACE and bradykinin, it became possible to develop new and efficient drugs for the treatment of high blood pressure. 

The main points arising from this data are  

All major applications have grown faster during this period than the average demand for industrial chemicals. 

By far the biggest growth has occurred in the pulp and paper industry, 

Note Total H2O2 production figures include material used for persalt production, but this is conventionally omitted from % breakdown of applications of H2O2 itself. 

This application is driven by the perceived need to replace chlorine-based bleaching agents in order to avoid the presence of harmful chlorinated organics either in the paper or in the effluent. 

In 2007 Boeing launched their Boeing 787 Dreamliner in which pre-impregnated carbon fibre is used for polymer-matrix composite structural components [10]. 

Frequencies of free vibrations the leading/trailing panels 

Ganguli and V. Varshney in Proceedings of the SAMPE Technical Conference - Multifunctional Materials Working Smarter Together, Memphis, TN, USA, 2008, Paper No.44. 

Wienhold and D.F. Persons in Proceedings of the 34 SAMPE Conference - Materials and Processing - Ideas to Reality, Baltimore, MD, USA, 2002, p.308. 

Grimsley, R.J. Cano and P. Hubert in Proceedings of the SAMPE 05 Conference New Horizons for Materials and Processing Technologies, Long Beach, CA, USA, 2005, Paper No.175. 

Beyond monolithic alloys the investigation of Mg matrix composites is still in progress. They can be processed using either the ingot metallurgy 

A range of special carbon-based masterbatches has been developed by Hubron  

Black Fibre - for staple and continuous tape and fibre extrusion, characterized by a very high level of dispersion, with a carbon black content of 30-40%. 

Black Silk - for polyethylene film in technically demanding applications calling for superior dispersion, dilution at high additions, and down-gauging with good opacity and UV protection. For best UV protection, it contains carbon black of 20-25 nm particle size at 40% content, and ingredients meeting European food contact requirements. 

A low-cost replacement for carbon black petroleum-based products has been introduced by DJ Enterprises a custom-ground, high-purity metallurgical carbon, superheated to drive off organic tramp elements. 

A non-marking black masterbatch, for moulding components of domestic appliances such as vacuum cleaners, whieh will not leave marks on walls or furniture, has been introduced by DuPont. 

In addition to the now more-or-less standard features and designs of the sedimenting centrifuges described in section 7.3, there have been many refinements and improvements added to the existing technology over the past decade or so. The most important ones are briefly reviewed here, with references given for further details and reading. 

At the other end of the application scale, the conventional decanter centrifuge is now also used in and made specifically for processing of drilling mud ( mud technology ) - 

There are now several variations of the design of the nozzle-type bowl including the following features  

4 internal nozzles and a paring tube for pressurized solids discharge. 

The solids recirculation system offered in the Merco Centrifuge, for example, takes part of the slurry discharged through the nozzles back into 

Pigment Violet 37 also exhibits a considerably more reddish shade and reduced tinctorial strength in paints compared to Pigment Violet 23, with equivalent fastness properties. 

Similar observations apply to its coloristic and fastness properties in polymers. However, in plasticized PVC it has the advantage of being almost entirely fast to migration. Like Pigment Violet 23 it dissolves to some extent in polymers therefore much of its heat stability is lost as the white pigment concentration in a system is increased. 

For more comprehensive information it should be noted that the relative properties and applications of Pigment Violet 23 and Pigment Violet 37 have been described authoritatively in a recent text on pigments [10]. 

Resolution of diastereomer mixtures by retro-aldolization under kinetic control for preparation of enantiomerically pure phenylserines, and racemate resolution process for a synthetic intermediate of an antiparkinsonism drug. 

The scope of potential applications is broadening on all frontiers with increasing complexity of target structures. Limitations inherent in the properties of enzymes are appreciated and approaches are developed to resolve them. Hopefully, this compilation of the potential scope of the technique and its limitations will help to identify, and aid in the successful development of, future synthetic applications. 

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (41) was prepared enzymatically from glycerol 1-phosphate (74) by the action of glycerol phosphate oxidase [177]. Analytical thin-layer chromatography was performed on silica gel plates using a 1 1 mixture of sat. ammonia-ethanol for development, and anisaldehyde stain for detection. The aldolases are commercially available or can be purified in accordance with published procedures [150]. Activity of aldolases (1 unit catalyzes cleavage of 1 pmol L-ketose 1-phosphates (43/45) per minute at 25 °C [150]) and amounts of 41 were determined photometrically by an assay coupled with glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase-catalyzed NADH oxidation [149]. 

L-Fmctose l-Phosphate from L-Clyceraldehyde by in-situ Formation of DHAP. GPO (70 U), catalase (1000 U), and RhuA (50 U) was added to a solution of L-glycerol 3-phosphate (74, 1.0 mmol) and L-glyceraldehyde (110 mg, 1.2 mmol) in 10 mL oxygen-saturated water at pH 6.8. The mixture was shaken at 20 °C under an oxygen atmosphere at 100 rpm. Conversion was monitored by enzymatic assay for equivalents of 41 produced, and by H and NMR spectroscopy. After complete conversion and filtration through charcoal the pH was adjusted to 7.5 by addition of 1.0 m cyclo-hexylamine in ethanol and the solution was concentrated to dryness by rotary evaporation at 20 °C in vacuo. The solid residue was dissolved in 0.5 mL water and the resulting solution was filtered. Dry ethanol (2.5 mL) was added, then dry acetone until faint turbidity remained. Crystallization at 4 °C furnished L-fructose 1-phosphate bis(cyclohexylammonium) salt as colorless needles yield 370 mg (85%). 

L-Fuculose 1-Phosphate from OL-Lactaldehyde by Racemate Resolution [171]. Racemic lactaldehyde dimethylacetal (6.0 g, 50 mmol) in 50 mL water was hydrolyzed by treatment with cation-exchange resin (Dowex AG50W-X8, H+ form) at 60 °C for 8 h. After filtration, an aqueous solution 

There has been a tremendous development of methods to handle theoretically quantum reactive scattering processes. In this section only a brief list of references, mainly reviews, and of authors working with the different subjects 

Variational principles Newton variational principle, Schwinger variational principle, amplitude density method Truhlar, Kouri and coworkers [69], [70]  

Kohn variational principle Miller, Zhang, Manolopolous, Wyatt and cowork-ers [69], [71]  

Body-fixed systems Pack, Parker and coworkers [69]  

Arrangement channel procedures Kouri, Truhlar et al. [3] Micha [77, 78] Tang [78] 

12-Hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane (CeH N12O12) or HNIW, more commonly called CL-20 belongs to the family of high energy dense caged nitramines. CL-20 was first synthesized in 1987 by Amie Nielsen, and is now being produced at SNPE in France in quantities of 50 100 kg on an industrial pilot scale plant. 

The research into energetic molecules which produce a large amount of gas per unit mass, led to molecular structures which 

Recent developments in polymeric binders are in the new family of polyphosphazenes. These polymers are highly flexible with very low glass transition temperatures and have a wide range of structures and physical properties. 

Examples of some explosive molecules under development are presented in Table 1.5. A summary of the significant discoveries in the history of explosives throughout the world is presented in Table 1.6. 

A few general force fields have been developed based on these formulas to explicitly treat the polarization effect. We now discuss development highlights for some of the representative force fields. 

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In a more recent development a new wireline tool has been developed that actually drills a plug out of the borehole wall. With sidewall coring (Fig. 5.36) some the main disadvantages of the SWS tool are mitigated, in particular the crushing of the sample. Up to 20 samples can be individually cut and are stored in a container inside the tool. 

The range of NDT and TD means to provide the technogenic safety is so wide (more than thousand types) that as an example we refer to only some of them recently developed in Moscow Scientific-Industrial Association Spectrum . 

This is a fairly accurate and convenient method for measuring the surface tension of a liquid-vapor or liquid-liquid interface. The procedure, in its simpli-est form, is to form drops of the liquid at the end of a tube, allowing them to fall into a container until enough have been collected to accurately determine the weight per drop. Recently developed computer-controlled devices track individual drop volumes to = 0.1 p [32]. 

Much of chemistry is concerned with the short-range wave-mechanical force responsible for the chemical bond. Our emphasis here is on the less chemically specific attractions, often called van der Waals forces, that cause condensation of a vapor to a liquid. An important component of such forces is the dispersion force, another wave-mechanical force acting between both polar and nonpolar materials. Recent developments in this area include the ability to measure... 

A second recent development has been the application 46 of the initial value representation 47 to semiclassically calculate A3.8.13 (and/or the equivalent time integral of the flux-flux correlation fiinction). While this approach has to date only been applied to problems with simplified hannonic baths, it shows considerable promise for applications to realistic systems, particularly those in which the real solvent bath may be adequately treated by a fiirther classical or quasiclassical approximation. 

A recent development is the adaptation of IP to EM detection. IPs have been used for detecting x-rays, which... 

Guokenberger R, Flartmann T and Knapp FI F 1995 Recent developments Scanning Tunneiiing Microscopy ii ed R Wiesendanger and Fl-J Guntherodt (Berlin Springer) oh 9... 

Taglauer E, Beckschulte M, Margraf R and Mehl D 1988 Recent developments in the applications of ion scattering spectroscopy Nucl. Instrum. Methods B 35 404-9... 

Recent developments m calorimetry have focused primarily on the calorimetry of biochemical systems, with the study of complex systems such as micelles, protems and lipids using microcalorimeters. Over the last 20 years microcalorimeters of various types including flow, titration, dilution, perfiision calorimeters and calorimeters used for the study of the dissolution of gases, liquids and solids have been developed. A more recent development is pressure-controlled scamiing calorimetry [26] where the thennal effects resulting from varying the pressure on a system either step-wise or continuously is studied. 

Armstrong F A and Wilson G S 2000 Recent developments in faradaic bioelectrochemistry Electrochim. Acta 45 2623... 

Bartlett R J 1995 Coupled-cluster theory an overview of recent developments Modem Eiectronic Structure Theory vo 2, ed D R Yarkony (Singapore World Scientific) pp 1047-131... 

Edelmann F T 1995 Filled buckyballs—recent developments from the endohedral metallofullerenes of lanthanides Angew. Chem. Int. Edn. Engl. 34 981-5... 

One of the most fascinating recent developments in biology has been the discovery of numerous highly complex biopolymer assemblies (see also section C2.14.2.3) such as the ribosome or the bacterial flagellum [93, 94 and 95], the envy of nanoteclmologists seeking to miniaturize man-made mechanical devices (note that the word machinery is also sometimes used to refer to multienzyme complexes such as the proteasome [96]), and an entire... 

Figure C3.2.7. A series of electron transfer model compounds with the donor and acceptor moieties linked by (from top to bottom) (a) a hydrogen bond bridge (b) all sigma-bond bridge (c) partially unsaturated bridge. Studies with these compounds showed that hydrogen bonds can provide efficient donor-acceptor interactions. From Piotrowiak P 1999 Photoinduced electron transfer in molecular systems recent developments Chem. Soc. Rev. 28 143-50.

Ozone has long been used on a small scale for water purification since it destroys viruses, and recent developments suggest that this use will increase in importance. 

With the danger of severe oversimplification, which unavoidably leads to improper underevaluation of important recent developments, I shall try to indicate where traditional, classical MD has brought us today, or will bring us tomorrow. This concerns the techniques rather than the applications, which cannot be reviewed in the present context. The main aspects to consider concern algorithms and force fields. 

Elber, 1996] Elber, R. Reaction path studies of biological molecules. In Recent developments in theoretical studies of proteins (Advanced series in physical chemistry, Vol. 7). R. Elber, editor. World Scientific, Singapore, 1996. 

From a mathematical point of view, conformations are special subsets of phase space a) invariant sets of MD systems, which correspond to infinite durations of stay (or relaxation times) and contain all subsets associated with different conformations, b) almost invariant sets, which correspond to finite relaxation times and consist of conformational subsets. In order to characterize the dynamics of a system, these subsets are the interesting objects. As already mentioned above, invariant measures are fixed points of the Frobenius-Perron operator or, equivalently, eigenmodes of the Frobenius-Perron operator associated with eigenvalue exactly 1. In view of this property, almost invariant sets will be understood to be connected with eigenmodes associated with (real) eigenvalues close (but not equal) to 1 - an idea recently developed in [6]. 

In Sec. 3, some recent developments of structure conserving integrators will be reviewed. Such symplectic or symmetric integrators are build to preserve certain geometric properties of the exact QCMD solution like energy... 

Hence, as the second class of techniques, we discuss adaptive methods for accurate short-term integration (Sec. 4). For this class, it is the major requirement that the discretization allows for the stepsize to adapt to the classical motion and the coupling between the classical and the quantum mechanical subsystem. This means, that we are interested in discretization schemes which avoid stepsize restrictions due to the fast oscillations in the quantum part. We can meet this requirement by applying techniques recently developed for evaluating matrix exponentials iteratively [12]. This approach yields an adaptive Verlet-based exponential integrator for QCMD. 

The pre-processing concepts have been a more recent development of substructure searching systems. These approaches have become popular since the mid-1980s, when the cost of the storage devices (hard disks and CD-ROMs) decreased. 

Frisch M J, G W Trucks and J R Cheeseman 1996. Systematic Model Chemistries Based on Density Functional Theory Comparison with Traditional Models and with Experiment. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry (Recent Developments and Applications of Modem Density Functional Theory) 4 679-707. 

Chemometrics. Statistics and Computer Application in Analytical Chemistry. New York, Wiley-VCH. yer D C and P D J Grootenhuis 1999. Recent Developments in Molecular Diversity nputational Approaches to Combinatorial Chemistry. Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry 187-296,... 

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