Compounds, organic

Volatile organic chemicals are released during a number of industrial and manufacturing operations. For example, 1,3-butadiene is an important raw material in the manufacture of synthetic rubber During manufacture small amounts of the chemical escape into the air. Formaldehyde is a raw material used in the manufacture of a variety of building materials, such as phenol-formaldehyde and melamine resins. Many household products, such as cleaning products, varnishes, waxes, paints, and organic solvents, contain VOCs, which vaporize and escape easily into the atmosphere when they are used. For this reason, VOCs often build up indoors. 

The Environmental Protection Agency and other federal agencies have been collecting data on VOC emissions since 1940. The EPA does not include VOCs among pollutants included in its monitoring programs, so comparable data on its contributions to air quality are not available. The pattern of VOC emissions shows an increase from about 16.5 million short tons (15 million metric tons) in 1940 to a maximum of about 30.8 million short tons (28 million metric tons) in 1970, followed by a reduction to 1940 levels in 1998. Emission levels have remained nearly constant since that time. About 40 percent 

Smog may result from a variety of environmental conditions when solar energy is responsible for the development of such conditions, it is referred to as photochemical smog. The production and destruction of photochemical smog are very complex events that involve hundreds of different chemical reactions. A full discussion of those reactions is beyond the scope of this book, but a general outline of the changes that take place is possible as follows. 

In the first step of photochemical smog production, sunlight (hv) acts on nitrogen dioxide to produce nitric oxide and free oxygen  

Oxygen atoms formed in this reaction react readily with diatomic oxygen present in the atmosphere to form ozone (O3). The symbol M in the following equation represents some third body that acts as a catalyst, removing energy from the O2/O collision, making it thermodynamically feasible  

Volatile organic compounds include many products such as volatile hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, aromatic compounds), carbonyl compounds (ketones, aldehydes), etc. In urban areas, they originate from motor vehicle exhaust gases, the evaporation of gasoline at filling stations, liquid fuels and industrial activities using solvents. Then-concentration may reach 50 ag-m in the atmosphere of large urban areas. 

Given their organic nature and their low concentration in air, and given that most of them are insoluble in water, it is unlikely that these compounds have any effect on the atmospheric corrosion of aluminium. Experience has shown that a localised somce of emission of chlorinated solvents, which used to exist in certain activities (dyeing, degreasing, etc.), could lead to severe corrosion of aluminium equipment exposed to this aggressive environment. 

In urban areas, chlorine emission originates mainly from the untreated smoke of household waste incineration plants burning plastic packaging, especially PVC-containing waste. In the atmosphere, chlorine in contact with moisture is transformed into hydrochloric acid. 

Chlorine emissions accelerate the atmospheric corrosion of all common metals, including aluminium. The higher the chlorine concentration and especially the higher the level of relative humidity the more this will be accelerated. This has been shown by test results at high chlorine levels (which are out of proportion with those found in an atmosphere polluted by chlorine emissions) (Table C.2.6). 

Chlorides found in the atmosphere are of marine origin. The wind sweeping over the oceans carries them over tens or even hundreds of kilometres. Their elfect is particularly significant in coastal areas, up to a distance of a few kilometres from the shore [14]. They play an important role in the corrosion of metals. The aggressiveness of an environment is closely related to the chloride content of the atmosphere. 

Of all the existing chemical compounds, the number that contains carbon is overwhelming. Due to the preponderance of 

Organic compounds contain covalent bonds. In general, compared to inorganic compounds organic compounds have low melting and boiling points, tend to be flammable, have relatively low densities, do not dissolve readily in water, and are primarily nonelectrolytes. 

Interest and the approaches to organic compound separations from ionic liquids emerged initially from the observation that many hydrocarbons were only poorly soluble in ionic liquids, enabling reaction and facile extraction processes to be achieved [32,46]. The advent of air-stable hydrophobic ionic liquids [10,47] opened up the potential to use ionic liquids in place of volatile organic solvents for aqueous/organic liquid-liquid extraction systems. 

The basis for the utility of ionic liquids as VOC replacements in liquid-liquid separations came from the investigation of organic solute distribution coefificients 

Bonhdte and coworkers [10] reported that ILs containing triflate, perfluorocar-boxylate and bistrifylimide anions were miscible with liquids of medium-high dielectric constant (s), including short-chain alcohols, ketones, dichloromethane, and THF, and were immiscible with low dielectric constant materials such as alkanes, dioxane, toluene, and diethylether. It was noted that ethylacetate (e = 6.04) is miscible with the Tess-polar bis(trifluorosulfonyl)imide and triflate ILs, and only partially miscible with more polar ILs containing carboxylate anions. Brennecke [21] has described miscibility measurements for a series of organic solvents with ILs with complementary results based on bulk properties. 

We have shown that, in general, ILs display partitioning properties similar to those of dipolar aprotic solvents, or short chain alcohols. The relationship between octanol/water partitioning and IL/water partitioning [51] (Fig. 3.3-7), despite clear polarity differences between the solvents, allows the solubility or partitioning of 

From empirical observation, ILs tend to be immiscible with non-polar solvents. Thus ILs can be washed, or contacted with diethyl ether, or hexane to extract nonpolar reaction products. On increasing solvent polarity, esters (for example ethyl acetate) exhibit variable solubility with ILs, depending on the nature of the IL. Polar solvents (including chloroform, acetonitrile, and methanol) appear to be totally miscible with all ILs (excepting tetrachloroaluminate ILs and the like, which react). Among notable exceptions, [EMIM]C1 and [BMIM]C1 are insoluble in dry acetone. 

The simplist organic compounds are branched or unbranched chains of C atoms to which H atoms have become attached and in which each C atom is bound to four other atoms. This family is called alkanes and the names of the unbranched compounds serve as a basis for the nomenclature of other organic chain compounds. 

The general molecular formula of the alkanes is C H 2n+2. In this formula the n is a whole and positive number and, as can be derived from the formula, the number of H atoms is two more than double the number of C atoms. In Table 3.6 the formulae and names of the first ten unbranched alkanes are given. 

Alcohols are compounds which contain one or more OH groups, the so-called hydroxyl groups, bound to different carbon atoms. However, this definition has one limitation no O atom with a double bond may be bound to the C atom with the OH group. In Fig. 3.16 the structural formulae of two alcohols have been drawn. Note that the 

In accordance with the number of OH groups, we speak of monovalent, bivalent, etc. alcohols. Alcohols with one OH group derive their names from the corresponding alkane to which the ending -ol has been added. With two OH groups the ending is -diol, etc. 

Alkanals and alkanons are compounds which are characterized by a double bound between an O atom and a C atom. In addition, only H and /or C atoms may be bound to that C atom (Fig. 3.18). 

The simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons that contain only the elements of carbon and hydrogen. All the carbon-to-carbon bonds in a hydrocarbon known as an alkane are single C—C bonds. Some common hydrocarbons include methane (CH4), propane (CsHg), and butane (C4Hio)- 

Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain one or more carbon-to-carbon double bonds (C = C). Because double bonds are very reactive, they easily add hydrogen atoms (hydrogenation) or water (hydration) to the carbon atoms in the double bond. One important compound containing a double bond is ethene (ethylene), which is used to ripen fruit when ready for market. A common compound with a triple bond is ethyne (acetylene), which burns at high temperatures and is used in welding metals. 

Learning about the structures and reactions of organic molecules will provide you with a foundation for understanding the more complex molecules of biochemistry. 

Identify properties characteristic of organic or inorganic compounds. 

TABLE 11.1 Some Properties of Organic and Inorganic Compounds 

Since that time, organic compounds have been considered simply to be substances that contain carbon, hydrogen, and possibly other elements and inorganic compoimds are 

Chemical substances are divided into two broad classifications organic compounds and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds may be defined as any substances that contain both carbon and hydrogen (and possibly other elements). Inorganic compounds consist of everything else. 

These achievements were not the only ones chemists made during the nineteenth century that resulted eventually in oirr modem understanding of atoms and molecules. Concurrently, chemists came to understand how elements and compounds either absorb heat from their surroundings or give offbeat to their surroundings as chemical reactions occur. These heat effects, summarized in the branch of chemistry known as thermochemistry, are important in understanding the nature of combustion processes and in controlling what products a certain mix of reactants will yield. 

The factors that control the rates, or speeds, at which chemical reactions occur, summarized in the branch of chemistry known as chemical kinetics, were discovered, and chemists learned how to control the rates of reactions by altering reactant concentrations, changing the temperature, or introducing a catalyst, a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without itself being altered in the process. 

Thermochemistry is the study of the heat effects associated with chemical phenomena. 

In general, ILs behave as moderately polar organic solvents with respect to organic solutes. Unlike the organic solvents to which they are commonly compared, however, they are poorly solvating and are rarely found as solvates in crystal structures. 

Ionic liquids are similar to dipolar, aprotic solvents and short-chain alcohols in their solvent characteristics. These vary with anion (from very ionic Cl to more covalent [BETI] ). IFs become more lipophilic with increasing alkyl substitution, resulting in increasing solubility of hydrocarbons and non-polar organics. 

Sellin, P. B. Webb, D. J. Cole-Hamilton, Chem. Commun. 2000, 781. 

Sachleben, Y. Deng, D. R. Bailey, B. A. Moyer, Solv. Extr. Ion Exch., 

The reactivity of organic compounds towards the hydrated electron depends on the availability of a low-lying vacant electron orbital. Thus saturated hydrocarbons and the corresponding amines and alcohols are unreactive. 

The reaction of the hydrated electron with monochloracetic acid to give chloride ion has already been discussed (see p. 430). This is only one of a general type of reaction involving haloaliphatic compounds [55, 56]. The reactions occurring are 

Rate coefficients are given in Table 6. The effect of substituent on the order of reactivity is F Cl Br 1. Carbon tetrachloride and chloroform both react with the hydrated electron at diffusion controlled limits, the rate coefficients being 3.0 x 10 and 2.5 x 10 ° 1 mole sec , respectively [49]. 

The carbanion of acrylamide has been observed in the pulse radiolysis of acrylamide. It may dimerize or react with scavengers [58], viz. 

The reaction of the carbanion with water has also been observed. 

12-heteropoly anions react with many organic oxy-compounds such as sugars, phenols, or acids to give products of unknown structure23,36 . 

Since the beginning of this century, synthetic organic compounds have been produced either for domestic (detergents, plastics, etc.), industrial (solvents, additives, dyes, etc.) or agricultural (pesticides, etc.) uses. Around 60,000 compounds are widely used in human activities and could be found in the environment, especially in water (surface water, groundwater, industrial or urban wastewater) or polluted soils [1-4]. 

Dyes generally contain two or more cyclic rings that may or may not be aromatic and condensed. From a chemical point of view, a dye molecule can be characterised, on the one hand, by the basic structure, which is related to a dye family and contains chromophores (conjugated double bonds, aromatic rings), which induce the dye solution coloration, and, on the other hand, by the substituents or auxochromic groups, which infer aqueous solubility by ionisation (NH2, OH, COOH, SO3H, etc.) and can enhance conjugation in the dye molecule. 

The most important families of dyes are azoic and anthraquinonic ones. Azoic dyes are characterised by an azo bond (N=N) connected to aromatic rings or heterocycles, meanwhile anthraquinonic dyes are derivatives of substituted anthraquinone and have two carbonyl groups (C—O) in their structure. Various substitutes can be found, such as alkyl, amino, hydroxy, halogeno, sulphonate or more complex groups. The studied dye solutions have been prepared in water at a concentration of 50 mgL-1. The effect of pH on UV-visible spectra is pointed out. 

Two isomeric phenylazonaphthols (called Orange 1 and Orange 2) and an aminobenzene derivative (Orange 3 or methyl orange) are presented. 

In basic medium, a bathochromic shift k = 513 nm, e = 14100 LmoMcnrr1) can be noticed for the Orange 1 the colour turns from orange to red. The phenate form is 

John and Stuart are surrounded by many different types of organic compounds, including alkanes and ether in their gas tank and carboxylic acid, aldehyde, ester, and arena in their lunch. 

After reading this section, you too will know how to recognize and describe alkanes, ethers, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, esters, arenes, amines, and other types of organic compounds. 

Organic (carbon-based) compounds are often much more complex than inorganic compounds, so it is more difficult to deduce their structures ftom their chemical formulas. Moreover, many organic formulas represent two or more isomers, each with a Lewis structure of its own (Section 12.2). The formula C6H14O, for example, has numerous isomers, including 

Chemists have developed ways of writing organic formulas so as to describe their structures as well. For example, the formula for butyl ethyl ether can be written CFi3CFi2CFi2CFi20CFi2CFi3, and the formula for 1-hexanol can be written FiOCFi2CFi2CFl2CFi2CFi2CFi3 to show the order of the atoms in the structure. 

The position of the -OFi group in 3-hexanol can be shown with the condensed formula CFi3CFi2CFi(OFi)CFi2CFi2CFi3. The parentheses, which are often left out, indicate the location at which the -OFi group comes off the chain of carbon atoms. 

Organic chemistry started as the chemistry of life, when that was thought to be different from the chemistry in the laboratory. Then it became the chemistry of carbon compounds, espe-ciaiiy those found in coal. But now it is both. It is the chemistry of the compounds formed by carbon and other elements such as are found in living things, in the products of living things, 

The most abundant organic compounds are those present in living things and those formed over millions of years from dead things. In earlier times, the organic compounds known from nature were those in the essential oils that could be distilled from plants and the alkaloids that could be extracted from crushed plants with acid. Menthol is a famous example of a flavouring compound from the essential oil of spearmint and cis-jasmone an example of a perfume distilled from jasmine flowers. 

Natural products have long been used to cure diseases, and in the sixteenth century one became famous—quinine was extracted from the bark of the South American cinchona tree and used to treat fevers, especially malaria. The Jesuits who did this work (the remedy was known as Jesuit s bark ) did not of course know what the structure of quinine was, but now we do. More than that, the molecular structure of quinine has inspired the design of modern drug molecules which treat malaria much more effectively than quinine itself. 

The main reservoir of chenticals available to the nineteenth century chemists was coal. Distillation of coal to give gas for Ughting and heating (mainly hydrogen and carbon monoxide) also gave a brown tar rich in aromatic compounds such as benzene, pyridine, phenol, aniline, and thiophene. 

Perkin was studying in London with the great German chemist, Hofmann. Perkin s attempt to make guinine this way was a remarkabie practicai chaiienge given that its structure was stiii unknown. 

One difference between a historian of organic chemistry and a laboratory worker is that the latter frequently focuses on individual compounds, the former rarely so. The 

Our goal in this chapter is to help you learn about organic chemistry, the chemistry of carbon. You will learn about the different types of organic compounds. We will also discuss biochemistry, including some biologically important compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and so on. We will also familiarize you with some organic reactions. And finally, to do well, you must Practice, Practice, Practice. 

More than 70 000 chemicals are recorded in the European Inventory of Known Chemical Substances and can be used in industry. As the majority are organic compounds, the importance of these compounds will be clear. Moreover, many of these organic compounds are solvents and volatile and may thus expose humans through the lungs or the skin, or are persistent and Upophilic and remain within the human body for many years as deposits in the fatty tissues. 

Solvents or their metabolites are commonly determined by GC (Tokunaga et al. 1974) or GC-MS. In spite of the high importance of exposure to solvents, and the great number of determinations performed worldwide, reference materials for solvents in serum or urine are virtually non-existent. There are a number of reference materials used in occupational hygiene, for example the ethanol in water standard from NIST (SRM 1828a) is commonly used in the clinical laboratory. 

Although the chemistry of organometallic compounds will be discussed more fully in Chapter 21, the subject is introduced briefly here. Specific examples of reactions will be given in most cases, but the reactions should be viewed as reaction types that can be carried out using appropriate compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, or Pb. As a result, reactions of one element may be illustrated, but these reactions have been used to develop an extensive organic chemistry of all the elements. 

The Group IVA tetrahalides undergo Grignard reactions to produce a large number of compounds containing organic substituents. For example, alkylation reactions such as the following are quite important  

Other alkylating agents such as lithium alkyls (LiR) can be employed  

The mixed alkyl halides can be prepared by the following reactions  

A coupling reaction can be brought about by the reaction of the R3SnX with sodium  

Greater than 95% of all known chemicals contain carbon. Carbon is unique because  

Organic compounds make up more than 95% of all the chemical compounds known to exist. One reason for this is that carbon is unlike all other elements. It can form chemical bonds to connect (become bonded) with four other atoms. This ability to connect with other atoms (form bonds) is called valence. Carbon is said to have a valence of 4. The most unique feature of carbon is that it readily forms bonds with other carbon atoms to form what are usually called carbon chains. It also readily bonds to other elements, particularly hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 

In addition to forming open chains, closed chains, and combinations thereof, in recent years, it has been found that carbon atoms can even link together to form closed spheres, which have structures resembling soccer balls. 

The sharing of electrons between carbon and hydrogen is an example of atom to-atom bonding known as covalency and the two-electron bond is called a covalent bond. 

Indentify the three primary particles in soil and describe the chemical differences between them. 

Identify the three maj or types of clays in soils and explain how they differ chemically. 

Describe the different types of bonding and their primary occurrences in soil. 

Describe the surface features, with particular reference to orbital availability, involved in surface binding of components in soil. 

In terms of bonding energy, the bonds formed in an exothermic reaction must be lower than those of the reactants. How is this known  

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T0669 Rocky Mountain Remediation Services, L.L.C., Envirobond and Envirobric T0692 see Environmental, Micro-Flo 

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T0009 Advanced Environmental Services, Inc., System 64MT Low-Temperature Thermal Desorption 

For those electrophiles (El) that undergo direct electron-transfer reduction at an inert electrode (glassy-carbon), the reduction potential ( red) is a measure of their electron affinity and electrophilicity [relative to that for H30+ (-2.10 V vs. NHE in aqueous media)] (the more positive the potential the more electrophilic the molecule see Chapter 1]  

Often the solution matrix contains Lewis acids (e.g, H30+) that are more electrophilic than the substrate molecule, and in combination are even more 

The first-formed intermediate (with an impaired electron) in combination with a second Lewis acid molecule has even greater electron affinity, and is reduced at a more positive potential to give a voltammogram that appears to be the result of an irreversible two-electron reduction process. In most cases it is an ECEC process in which each electron transfer (E part of the ECEC mechanism) to the Lewis acid (H30+) is reversible to give a product (H-) that forms a covalent bond with the substrate (H—Eh) (the C part of the mechanism). 

Conversely, nucleophilic molecules (Nu) [Lewis bases e.g., catechols, hy-droquinones, phenols, alcohols, and thiols (and their anions) aromatic hydrocarbons and amines (benzene, toluene, pyridine, bipyridine)] can be oxidized by (1) direct electron-transfer oxidation [Eq. (12.3)] or (2) by coupling with the oxidation product of H20 (or HO-), hydroxyl radical (HO-) [Eq. (12-4)]  

The potential (Eaii) for those nucleophiles that undergo direct electron-transfer oxidation at an inert electrode is a quantitative measure of their nucleophilicity (the more negative the potential, the more nucleophilic the molecule see Table 1.3 for representative values). In many cases water in the solvent matrix (or as the solvent) is more nucleophilic than the substrate molecule, and in combination is even easier to oxidize, which often results in an ECEC oxidation process  

12-tetrafluoro-o-carborane in the plane, containing two carbon and boron nuclei. Logarithmic scale, positive contours are dashed (Reproduced by permission of the American Chemical Society) 

Puig-Molina et a/.141 compared the theoretical and experimental electron density in the nonlinear optical material 2-amino-5-nitropyridinium dihydrogen phosphate, 2A5NPDP. The experimental p was determined from X-ray diffraction data interpreted in terms of the Hansen Coppens pseudoatom formalism. The BCP properties of the total experimental electron density agree fairly well with Hartree-Fock calculations for the isolated ions. The analysis of the 

Finally we mention the study of Aguilar-Martinez et al. who synthesised and analyzed the substituent effects on the redox properties of 19 compounds of 3 -(meta) and A - para) substituted 2- (i -phenyl)amine -1,4-naphtalenediones in acetonitrile.153 Beside an UV-vis analysis and a voltammetric study the authors performed semi-empirical (PM3) and DFT calculations (B3LYP with double-C 

In freshwater fishes, mixtures of copper with anionic detergents or various organophos-phorus insecticides cause more-than-additive toxicity. And in marine vertebrates, copper 

In mammals, phenobarbital and pheny-toin increase serum ceruloplasmin concentrations. Chronic copper poisoning in sheep is exacerbated when diets contain heliotrope plants (Heliotropium sp., Echium spp.. Sene do sp.). Aggravated effects of the heliotrope plants include reduced survival and a 2-3-fold increase in liver and kidney copper concentrations when compared to control animals fed copper without heliotropes. Rats given acutely toxic doses of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin had elevated concentrahons of copper in liver and kidney because of impaired biliary excretion of copper. Morphine increases copper concentrahons in the central nervous system of rats and dithiocarbamates inhibit biliary excretion. In human pahents, urinary excretion of copper is increased after treatment with D-penicihamine, calcium disodium EDTA, or calcium trisodium diethylene-triamine penta acetic acid. 

An AIM analysis was performed on experimental charge densities of 1,1-difluoroallene and tetrafluoroallene, and they were eompared to those obtained by MP2/6-31 l-b- -G calculations. It is noted that a small shift in the CP location in the C-F bond ean lead to eonsiderable changes in the value of V p. 

PROBLEM STRATEGY Because a compound is neutral, the sum of positive and negative charges equals zero. Consider the ionic compound CaCl2, which consists of one Ca ion and two CP ions. The sum of the charges is  

Many compounds of chromium have bright coiors, which is the origin of the name of the eiement.it comes from the Greek word chroma, meaning coior.  

The final formula is SrO, because this gives the simplest ratio of ions. 

Urea was the first organic molecule deliberately synthesized by a chemist from non-organic compounds. 

Organic compounds make up the majority of all known compounds. Since 1957, more than 13 million (60%) of the recorded substances in an international materials registry have been listed as organic. You encounter organic compounds in both 

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Jordan, T. E. "Vapor Pressure of Organic Compounds," Interscience, New York, 1954. 

Compilation of vapor-pressure data for organic compounds data are correlated with the Antoine equation and graphs are presented. 

Seidell, A., and W. F. Linke "Solubilities of Inorganic and Metal-Organic Compounds," Vols. 1 and 2 and Supplement, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1958-65. 

Timmermans, J. "Physical-Chemical Constants of Pure Organic Compounds," Vol. 1-2, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1950-65. 

STEPHEN,H, STEPHEN,T E0S /S0LUBIL1TIES OF INORGANIC MO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS,MACMILLAN CO, NEW YaRK(1964) ... 

Stephen, H., Stephen, T., "Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds," Pergamon Press, New York (1963). 

Prepared from ethyne and ammonia or by dehydration of ethanamide. Widely used for dissolving inorganic and organic compounds, especially when a non-aqueous polar solvent of high dielectric constant is required, e.g. for ionic reactions. 

Typical organic acids contain the --C(0)0H group, but many other acid groupings, e.g. the sulphonic -S(0)20H give acidic properties to organic compounds. Phenols have acidic properties and are classified with enols as pseudo-acids. 

Beilstein s test A method for detecting the presence of halogen in an organic compound. A piece of copper gauze is heated in an oxidiz-... 

Carius method The quantitative determination of S and halogens in covalent (organic) compounds by complete oxidation of the compound with cone, nitric acid and subsequent estimation of precipitated AgX or BaS04. 

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