Future trends and conclusions

Mammalian cells and tissues reside in mechanically dynamic microenvironments in the body. Abnormal or excessive physical loads on tissues result in tissue deformation. Numerous studies have confirmed that proper mechanical stimuli applied to cells or tissues contribute to maintaining cell/tissue morphology and inducing specialized functions. Mechanical stimuli have recently been applied to regenerate functional tissues, in particular tissues for the cardiovascular system. To reconstruct functionally active SM tissues that are comparable to native tissues, the re-creation in vitro of in vivo mechano-active microenvironments may be a necessary part of the tissueengineering process. 

It is their specific optimal mechanical behavior characteristics that will help achieve new successes in the field of polymer bioimplants. Continued research on new resorbable polymers will be necessary to gain insights into cell response and cell interactions with surrounding tissues that are mediated by cell matrix interactions. The introduction of biologically active functional groups to the polymer chain will result in materials that are attractive for tissue regeneration. 

The permeability and the permittivity of geotextile filters should be evaluated accurately by both experimental and theoretical methods. 

Reliable tests are available to design both filters and drains. 

ASTM D4404. Standard Test Method for Detamination of Pore Volume and Pore Volume Distribution of Soil and Rock by Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry. ASTM International, USA. 

Muratoglu, M. Evans, and A. A. Edidin, Advances in the processing, sterilization, and crosslinking of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene for total joint arthroplasty. Biomaterials 20 (18), 1659-1688 (1999). B. D. Ratner (eds.), An introduction to materials in medicine, San Diego Elsevier Science Technology Books (1996). 

Bassett, Principles of Polymer Morphology, Cambridge University Press (1981). 

Lauritzen, and J. D. Hoffman, Theory of formation of polymer crystals with folded chains in dilute solution. J. Res. Nat. Bur. Std. 64A, 73-102 (1959). 

Sadler, The structure of Crystalline Polymers, I. Hall (Ed.), Oxford, Elsevier (1984). 

Wunderlich, G. Czornyj, A Study of Equilibrium Melting of Polyethylene. 

There have been many studies and patents concerning gel spinning. Won-Ill Cha et used methanol as a solvent and coagulant, and a mixture of 

Yasuda H., Ban K. and Ohta Y. (1994), Advanced Fibre Spinning Technology, vol. 25, Woodhead Publishing Limited, 172-186. 

Hart-Smith U. Effects of flaws and porosity on strength of adhesive-bonded joints. Douglas Aircraft Co 1981. report DP 7388. 

Cheng P, Gong XJ, Aivazzadeh S. Design and optimization of composite laminates repaired by external patches. In 18th international conference on composite materials, Korea 2011 August, pp. 21—6. 

Hoskin BC, Baker AA, editors. Composite materials for aircraft structures, AIAA education series. New York AIAA 1986. 

Engels H, Becker W. Qosed-fonn analysis of external patch repairs of laminates. Compos Struct 2002 56(3) 259—68. 

Wang CH, Gunnion AJ. Optimum shapes of scarf repairs. Comp A 2009 40(9) 1407—18. Soutis C, Hu FZ. Failure analysis of scarf-patch-repaired composite laminates loaded in compression. AIAA J 2000 38(4) 734—40. 

Electrochonical Sensors, Biosensors and Their Biomedical Applications 

Stefan, J.F. van Staden, and H.Y. Aboul-Enein, Immunosensors in clinical analysis. Fresenius J. Anal Chem. 366, 659-668 (2000). 

Sokoll, and D.W. Chan, Immunosensor principles and applications to clinical chemistry. Clin. Chim. Acta 314, 1-26 (2001). 

Gizeli and C.R Lowe, Immunosensors. Current Opin. Biotech. 7, 66-71 (1996). 

Researchers have made enormous efforts and significant progress in understanding the synthesis procedures and the formation mechanism of the zeolite layer in order to improve the quality of the membranes. However, further improvements based on producing reproducible defect-free zeolite membranes and to reduce their manufacturing cost need to be carried out to facilitate their introduction in the industry as membrane reactors. 

Aguado S, Coronas J and Santamaria J (2005), Use of zeolite membrane reactors for the combnstion of VOCs present in air at low concentrations , Chem Eng Res Des, 83(A3), 295-301. 

Algieri C, Bernardo P, Barbieri G and Drioli E (2009), A novel seeding procedure for preparing tnbnlar NaY zeolite membranes , Micropor Mesopor Mat, 119, 129-136. 

Baker RW (2002), Fntnre directions of membrane gas separation technology , Eng Chem Res, 41,1393-1411. 

Baerlocher C, McCnsker L B and Olson D H (2007), Atlas of zeolite framework types, Elsevier, Amsterdam. 

The proposed conduction models, which are based on simple assumptions and confirmed by the experimental results, explain the weaker performance of the devices based on p-type materials when compared with those based on n-type materials. They also open up new opportunities for investigation in combination with working conditions characterization techniques. 

Future work will concentrate on applying the models for more complicated and realistic operational conditions in the direction indicated by the CuO investigation presented in Section 2.4.2. The understanding of the effect of the presence of humidity in the ambient is of crucial importance, as is the understanding of the effect of surface dopants and bulk doping. 

(1994) Conduction models in gas-sensing SnOj layers grain-size effects and ambient atmosphere influence , Sensors and Actuators B Chemical, 17(3), 241-6, DOI 10.1016/0925-4005(93)00873-W 

Barsan, N., Huebner, M. and Weimar, U. (2011) Conduction mechanisms in Sn02 based polycrystalline thick fihn gas sensors exposed to CO and H2 in different oxygen backgrounds Sensors and Actuators B Chemical, 157(2), 510-17, DOI 10.1016/j.snb.2011.05.011 

Barsan, N., Simion, C., Heine,T., Pokhrel, S. and Weimar, U. (2010) Modehng of sensing and transduction for p-type semiconducting metal oxide based gas sensors . Journal of Electroceramics, 25(1), 11-19, DOI 10.1007/sl0832-009-9583-x 

From our point of view, the main limiting factor in using sensory tools with a panel of elderly people is tiredness and their cognitive status. Indeed, a senior in good 

Rapid Sensory Profiling Techniques and Related Methods 

However, many issues are still not resolved. There is, unfortunately, no theory as yet to explain the relationship between the reduction in peak HRR and dispersion of the clay in the polymer. This depends on uncertainties about the clay dispersion in the polymer matrix since the technique most used to characterise the PLSNs morphology is the TEM that examines only a very small portion of the polymer and one small sample will not necessarily be representative of the whole. On the other hand, cone calorimeter experiments are so sensitive that Wilkie proposed that the cone calorimetry must also be considered as another method to examine the bulk sample and infer if good dispersion has been achieved.  

The FR effect of nanocomposites is not limited to PLSNs. Carbon nanotubes are another candidate as FR additives because of their high aspect ratio. This was demonstrated by using carbon nanotubes in pp, PMMA and also EVA. i 

Iowa Agricoltural Experiment Station Research Bulletin, 1949, 362, 39—52. 

Vysokomolekulyamye Soedineniya (high molecular weight compounds), 

Blumstein, A., Etude des polymerisations en couche adsorbee I . Bull. Chim. Soc., 

Research in smart polymers has undergone tremendous progress in the past few years however, the effectiveness of these biomaterials as a valuable tool for TE clinical applications is still in its early stages. Major limitations such as rapid and well controllable response, reproducibility, and biocompatibility still need to be overcome. It is crucial to remember that the continuous advances in TE and regenerative medicine will increase the need for more complex and well-organized systems that cannot be obtained by conventional means, and an increased demand for controlled site-specific systems is expected. The rapid progress in the development of the new techniques to engineer the cellular microenvironment will certainly enhance the possibility of a rapid advance toward this objective. 

Stimuli responsive polymeric systems in combination with a better design of biomaterials, with control over the chemical and physical properties are critical for an improvement in the efficiency of implantable materials. Consequently, elegant and clever designs by combining smart polymers with micro- and nanopatterned biochemical cues and cells show enormous potential for clinical appUcable engineered biomaterials. 

Aizenberg, J. (2004). CrystaUization in patterns A bio-inspired approach. Advanced Materials, 16,1295-1302. 

Akiyama, H., Ito, A., Kawabe, Y. and Kamihira, M. (2010). Genetically engineered angiogenic cell sheets using magnetic force-based gene delivery and tissue fabrication techniques. Biomaterials, 31,1251-1259. 

Leonor, I. B., Azevedo, H. S., Reis, R. L. and Mano, J. F. (2010). Designing biomaterials based on biomineralization of hone.Joumal of Materials Chemistry, 20,2911-2921. 

Dietary consumption of polyphenols is associated with a lower risk of degenerative diseases. In particular, protection of serum lipids from oxidation, which is a major step in the development of arteriosclerosis, has been demonstrated. More recently, new avenues have been explored in the capacity of polyphenols to interact with the expression of the human genetic potential. The understanding of the interaction between this heterogeneous class of compounds and cellular responses, due either to their ability to interplay in the cellular antioxidant network or directly to affect gene expression, has increased. 

One main line of future research could be in the inhibitory/activating effect on key enzymes involved in the pathogenesis of arteriosclerosis. In particular, enzymes regulating signal transduction involved in phosphorylation of proteins, such as PKC and tyrosine protein kinase, seems to be somehow modulated by different polyphenols and may represent a possible target for polyphenol activity. 

In conclusion, polyphenols seem to be able to affect the expression of genes involved in the pathogenesis of atherogenesis. Cytokines and adhesion molecules appear to be among the most important genes expressed during the pro-inflammatory situation which precedes the formation of the atheroma, and have also been reported to be affected, at least in part, by phenolics. We 

Nanodispersed metal hydroxides have been proved as efficient flame retardants for polymeric materials. It has been shown [107] that the LOI obtained from EVA containing 50 wt% Mg(OH)2 increases from 24% to 38.3% when micrometric Mg(OH)2 (2-5 irm) is replaced with nanometric Mg(OH)2. The enhancement of EVA flame retardancy by nanosized Mg(OH)2 was attributed to the good dispersion of the nanoparticles, which leads to the formation of more compact and cohesive charred layers during the combustion test. Therefore, the nanodispersed LDH layers may also contribute to the flame retardancy of polymer/LDH nanocomposites. 

PolymerAayered double hydroxide flame retardant nanocomposites 

In spite of the encouraging results obtained in polymer/LDH flame retardant nanocomposites, the use of LDHs alone is insufficient for ensuring adequate fire resistance to meet the required standards, such as LOI values and UL-94 test ratings, especially at low LDH concentrations. The combination of LDH with conventional flame retardants is an effective way to avoid this limitation. By this means, it is possible to reach the flame retardancy required by the market with a halogen-free, nontoxic flame retardant system and improved mechanical properties. There are also many issues concerning the synergy between LDH and conventional flame retardants. 

Clearly, LDHs offer a novel means of developing flame retardant polymeric materials. Increased research in this area continues to point to their potential. Once the present issues are resolved, polymer/LDH nanocomposites may satisfy the requirement for high-performance flame retardant systems. 

Xie and B. J. Qu, Synergistic effects of expandable graphite with some halogen-free flame retardants in polyolefin blends. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 71 (2001), 375-80. 

The interest in the use of raw materials derived from renewable sources, combined with the good properties that have been observed for these materials, have led to the perspective that composites based on bio-resins and lignocellulosic and/or cellulosic fibers will experience an impressive development in a near future. Furthermore, the coming years should see an increased number of investigations on nano-reinforced thermoset composites, including phenolic composites. 

The phenolic-type resins should remain an excellent option for therraoset-matrix composites, with these materials maintaining a prominent position in the area of composites based on their favorable cost/performance characteristics. 

There should be an extension of research into the analysis of human body fluids, e.g. blood, urine, milk by way of adducts specific to the perceived most harmful mycotoxins. There should also be continued examination of novel ways of determining toxic effects on the immune system. The use of human cell lines for toxicity studies should be further developed especially using cells that have been transfected with human cytochromes. 

The continued development of rapid, cost-effective methods of analysis of mycotoxins is essential, especially methods that can be used in unsophisticated laboratories. While low levels of tolerance are now accepted for the aflatoxins in most developed countries, it is doubtful if most laboratories can meet such requirements. 

There should also be continued research to optimise methods to detoxify contaminated agricultural crops to produce safe products. 

It has been stated that the single most important influence on the human diet worldwide would be the successful exclusion of mycotoxins (Miller, 1998). The awareness of the toxic role of mycotoxins in the human diet would be greatly improved by the wider teaching of mycotoxicology in courses on food science and microbiology. 

Mycotoxins and Their Control Constraints and Opportunities. Bulletin 73, Natural Resources Institute, The University of Greenwich, 1997. 

Washburn, N. R. (2008) Influence of the degree of methacrylation on hyaluronic acid hydrogels properties. Biomaterials, 29, 1739-1749. 

Bromberg, L. (2008) Polymeric micelles in oral chemotherapy. Journal of Controlled Release, 128, 99-112. 

Bryant, S. J., Davis-Arehart, K. A., Luo, N., Shoemaker, R. K., Arthur, J. A. Anseth, K. S. (2004) Synthesis and characterization of photopolymerized multifunctional hydrogels water-soluble poly(vinyl alcohol) and chondroitin sulfate macromers for chondroc5te encapsulation. Macromolecules, 37, 6726-6733. 

Burdick, J. A. Anseth, K. S. (2002) Photoencapsulation of osteoblasts in injectable RGD-modifled PEG hydrogels for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials, 23, 4315-4323. 

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Applications of Individual Techniques 15.8 Conclusions and Future Trends References... 

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