Future prospect

The prospects for further advances in our understanding of the structure of large viruses look bright. The paucity of available information in some cases means that more widespread application of currently available approaches is bound to produce steep increases in knowledge. In addition, increases in our understanding of the better known structures of HSV-1 and T4 capsids should continue. It is likely that efforts will be 

It is evident from the studies on HSV-1 and T4 that, even in the absence of crystallographic structures, it is possible to gain enough insights into the mechanics of a virus particle from intermediate-resolution information to make the effort required to obtain such information worthwhile. Therefore, it should be expected that our understanding of the interplay between the structures of large viruses and their biology will expand dramatically as studies into their molecular architecture are extended. 

In this article we have attempted to describe some structural aspects of large viruses. Although this may seem a straightforward task, it is complicated by the fact that large viruses do not represent a distinctive 

(2002). Development and Applications of Intermediate Resolution Structural Analysis Tools Integrating Bioinformatics and Electron Cryomicroscopy. Ph.D. thesis. Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX. 

Devauchelle, G., Stoltz, D. B., and Darcy-Tripier, F. (1985). Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 116, 1-21. 

The future is unpredictable, but prudent men and women plan ahead to exploit new opportunities and to avoid or minimize threats. The CPI is capital intensive and require sophisticated processes 3-10 years may elapse between the conception of a process and plant start-up. A plant may be expected to be productive for 10-25 

The basic information needed to assess the market in the future consists of the following  

The population of the United States, of industrially developed countries in western Europe and Japan, of developing nations in eastern Europe, Asia, and South America, and of the less-developed countries 

The total buying power or these markets measured as GDP and GDP per capita 

The changing market demand for specific product owing to product competition, substitution, changes in needs, and changes in lifestyles 

It may be that in the more distant future, the exact calculation of chemical shifts will become possible, thus enabling a complete structure analysis by a single H-NMR spectrum. 

Beke D (1963) Heterocyclic pseudo bases. In Karitzky AR (ed) Advances in heterocyclic chemistry I. Academic Press, New York, p 167 Bisset NG, Casinovi CG, Galeffi C, Marini-Bettolo GB (1965) Su alcune 16-alcossi-stricnine. Ric Sci 35 (II-B) 273-274 

Blaha K, Kavkova K, Koblicova Z, Trojanek J (1968) On alkaloids XX. Absolute configuration of alkaloids of eburnane series. Optical rotation dispersion. Coll Czech Chem Commun 33 3833-3840 

Crab TA, Newton RF, Jackson D (1971) Stereochemical studies of N-bridgehead compounds by spectral means. Chem Rev 71 109-126 Davis DG, Bax A (1985) Simplification of NMR spectra by selective excitation of experimental subspectra. J Am Chem Soc 107 7197-7198 Englert G (1985) NMR of carotenoids - new experimental techniques. Pure Appl Chem 57 801-820 

Everette AJ, Lowe LA, Wilkinson S (1970) Revision of the structures of (-h)-tubocurarine chloride and (-h)-chondrocurine. J Chem Soc Chem Commun 1020-1021 Farnsworth NR, Blomster RN, Damratoski D, Meer W, Cammarato LV (1964) Studies on Catharanthus alkaloids. VI evaluation by means of thin-layer chromatography and ceric ammonium sulfate spray reagent. Lloydia 27 302-314 

When CyD applications are realized in these nonfood areas, where much larger consumption is expected, the total market size may exceed 20 000 tonnes per year in the near future. 

It is believed that CyDs have many potential applications, some of which we already know while others as yet remain unknown. Future research efforts will further advance the CyD application frontier, and I believe that we can make a significant contribution to overcoming some important problems that we currently face. 

Hashimoto, K. Hara, N. Kuwahara, K. Mikuni, K. Kainuma, S. Kobayashi, Jpn. Kokai, JP85 234 564(1985). 

Kobayashi, K. Yamashita, K. Matukura, J. Okumura, Jpn. Kokai, JP856 176(1985). 

Besides the various themes which have already been covered by cosmogenic nuclide studies as shown in the above sections, new fields may become amenable to the method in near future. I can only give a very limited outlook based on recent case studies. 

Libarkin et al. (2002) measured cosmogenic Ne in quartz from the 28 Ma old Fish Canyon Tuff (Colorado), which is covered by later-emplaced tuff and sediment layers. 

Comparing the Nec concentration with the time interval during which Fish Canyon Tuff 

In the future, investigations of terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides produced in situ in rock material will certainly become more and more widespread. As shown in the preceding sections, applications of the method span many fields of Earth sciences and beyond. Accuracy of results is expected to improve as both experimental methods and knowledge of the background, such as production rates, are refined. The use of other minerals and additional nuclides will further expand the range of treatable subjects. 

I thank Joe Licciardi for unpublished data and Ralf Hetzel and Rainer Wieler for comments on the manuscript. Reviews by Ken Farley, Simon Kelley, William Phillips, and Jorg Schafer were very helpful to better achieve this article s purpose to become a survey of the current state of the art in cosmic ray exposure dating using noble gases. 

Aggarawal, S.K., Kinter, M., Wills. M.R., Savory, J. and Herold, D.A. (1989). Isotope dilution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for the determination of nickel in biological materials. Anal. Chem. 61,1099-1103. 

Ozdural, A.R. and Balkis, T. (1980). Theoretical analysis of atom formation-time curves for HGA-74. Spectrochim. Acta 35B, 373-378. 

Andersen, J.R., Gammelgaard, B. and Reimert, S. (1986). Direct determination of nickei in human plasma by Zeeman-corrected atomic absorption spectrometry. Analyst 111, 721-722. 

Barnett, N.W., Chen, LS. and Kirkbright, G.F. (1983). Determination of trace concentrations of iead and nickel in freeze-dried human milk by atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively-coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta 149, 115-121. 

Holzbecher, J. and Ryan, D.E. (1983). Determination of nickel in biological materials and sea water by neutron activation and liquid scintillation counting of nickel-65. Anal. Chim. Acta 152, 247-255. 

Thirdly, it will be important to gain more direct information on the stability of outer-sphere precursor states, especially with regard to the limitations of simple electrostatic models (Sect. 4.2). One possible approach is to evaluate Kp for stable reactants by means of differential capacitance and/or surface tension measurements. Little double-layer compositional data have been obtained so far for species, such as multicharged transition-metal complexes, organometallics, and simple aromatic molecules that act as outer-sphere reactants. The development of theoretical double-layer models that account for solvation differences in the bulk and interfacial environments would also be of importance in this regard. 

1 For recent reviews on electron-transfer reactions, see (a) N. Sutin, Prog. Inorg. Chem., 30 (1983), 441. (b) A. Haim, Prog. Inorg. Chem., 30 (1983) 273. (c) R.D. Cannon, Electron-Transfer Reactions, Butterworths, London, 1980. (d) M.D. Newton, Int. J. Quantum Chem. Symp., 14 (1980) 363. (e) R.A. Marcus and N. Sutin, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 811 (1985) 265. (f) M.D. Newton and N. Sutin, Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem., 35 (1984) 437. 

Electron Transfer Reactions of Complex Ions in Solution, Academic Press, New York, 1970. 

8 For example, see P. Delahay, Double Layer and Electrode Kinetics, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1965, Chap. 7. 

Conway, in J. O M. Bockris (Ed.), MTP International Review of Science, Physical Chemistry Series I, Vol. 6, Butterworths, London, 1973, p. 41. 

The oxidation chemistry of a-tocopherol and the regioselectivity of the o-QM formation are well investigated (Section 6.3.2). This is in complete contrast to [3-tocopherol. At a first glance, the [3-tocopherol case would appear much simpler as the free aromatic position at C-7 offers no alternative methyl group to be involved in o-QM formation. However, preliminary results show that the oxidation chemistry of [3-tocopherol is rather complex, the free position undergoing alkylation by the o-QM 

Finally, the spiro polymerization of molecules bearing two ortho-alkylphenol functions capable of forming o-QMs offers a wide field for reactivity and kinetic studies as well as multiple applications in polymer and material chemistry and science. 

The financial support to this work by the Fonds zur Forderung der wissenschaf-tlichen Forschung (FWF, Austrian Science Foundation), Projects P-14687, P-17428, and P-19081 is gratefully acknowledged. 

IUPAC-IU. B. Nomenclature of tocopherols and related compounds recommendations 1981. Eur. J. Biochem. 1982, 123, 473 175. 

IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (CBN). Nomenclature of qui-nones with isoprenoid side-chains recommendations (1973). Arch. Biochim. Biophys. 1974, 165, 1-8. 

The sensitivity of the ocean s chemical role in climate is yet to be fully explored as development of models for the carbon and biological components of oceanic 

A number of current coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models predict that the overturning of the North Atlantic may decrease somewhat under a future warmer climate.While this is not a feature that coupled models deal with well, its direct impact on the ocean s sequestration of carbon would be to cause a significant decline in the carbon that is stored in the deep water. This is a positive feedback, as oceanic carbon uptake would decline. Flowever, the expansion of area populated by the productive cool water plankton, and the associated decline 

Callander, N. Flarris, A. Kattenberg and K. Masked, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 

Changes in surface temperature elsewhere in the globe are likely to have a lesser impact on carbon or DMS production. For example, the warming that a doubling of atmospheric COj could produce in the Southern Ocean has been modelled to lead to decreased carbon uptake, but enhanced biological productivity, due to the temperature effect on phytoplankton growth. This would lead to an approximately 5% increase in DMS production and a lesser increase in CCN. There is thus a negative feedback here, but only of minor impact. 

The role of oceanic physical chemistry and biochemistry in the enhanced greenhouse future is still uncertain. We have discussed the mechanisms generating a number of potential feedbacks, both positive and negative in their impact. However, new interactions are constantly being discovered in nature, and model representation of them is a rapidly evolving science. At present what we can say is that this is a young field of much intellectual and practical promise. 

The biggest drawback of the oxidation catalytic converter is its lack of durability, unless great efforts are made to protect it from very high 

The Diesel engine has excessive emission of smoke and odor from aldehydes and oxygenated aromatics, which are not regulated at this moment. It is approximately 50% larger and heavier than a gasoline engine of the same horse power. However, it does have the virtue of better fuel economy and easier maintenance. 

The other potential solutions for 1976 are even more unattractive. The 

Diesel engine has little prospect of attaining an emission of NO below 1.0 g/mile. The inherently lean exhaust from Diesel makes an NO reduction catalyst useless, and would require an NO decomposition catalyst. The Wankel engine and the Honda stratified charge engine are also unable to reduce its NO emission below 1.0 g/mile. 

2DLC may be the method of choice for specific applications, these applications will need to be turnkey from the viewpoint of instrumentation and this has not yet been achieved in a wide context. When this desired goal is achieved, 2DLC will evolve to be a standard instrumental approach to the qualitative and quantitative analyses of complex materials. 

(1980). Coupled GPC/HPLC copolymer composition and axial dispersion characterization. J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Lett. Ed. 18, 453 456. 

Durant, J. (2003). XML Programming Bible. John Wiley Sons, Inc. New York. 

Bushey, M.M., Jorgenson, J.W. (1990a). Automated instrumentation for comprehensive two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography of proteins. Anal. Chem. 62, 161-167. 

Development of the PLFNCs is one of the latest evolutionary steps in polymer technology. The PLFNCs offer attractive potential for diversification and application of conventional polymeric materials. Some of the PLFNCs are already commercially available and applied in industrial products. 

1 Smith, R. (2005)Biodegradable Polymer for Industrial Applications, CRC Press, New York. 

2 Johnson, R.M., Mwaikambo, L.Y. and Tucker, N. (2003) Biopolymer , Rapra Review Report No 159, 148 pp Rapra Technology Ltd., London. 

4 Usuki, A., Kojima, Y., Okada, A., Fukushima, Y., Kurauchi, T. and Kamigaito, O. (1993) Journal of Materials Research, 8, 1174. 

Reminiscent of the trend with laboratory studies, most (33 out of 43 cited above) uncontrolled clinical trials with either healthy volunteers or cardiovascular patients suggest that oral and intravenous NO donors at therapeutic doses acutely inhibit platelet activation in vivo (vide supra). Aside from their lack of long-term dosing and a placebo control group, several considerations restrict the predictive clinical value of these uncontrolled clinical studies limited numbers of subjects nonuniform criteria for subject entry and treatment outside of the trial induction of adrenaline or 

We thank Deborah Farnham for reprint assistance, Dawn Spooner for illustration assistance and Ginny Braman for technical comments. 

2 Bhatt, D.L., Topol, E.J., Nature Revs. Drug Disc. 2 (2002) p. 15-28 

15 Salam, A. M., Suwaidi, J. A., Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 11 (2002) 

19 Freedman, J. E., Loscalzo, J., in Nitric Oxide and the Cardiovascular System, Humana Press, USA 2000, p. 297-307 

The results of fluorescence polarization studies of proteins were discussed above. Time-resolved anisotropy measurements often permit, without any additional variation of experimental conditions, intramolecular rotations to be distinguished from rotation of the whole protein molecule and characterized, 

There should exist a correlation between the two time-resolved functions the decay of the fluorescence intensity and the decay of the emission anisotropy. If the fluorophore undergoes intramolecular rotation with some potential energy and the quenching of its emission has an angular dependence, then the intensity decay function is predicted to be strongly dependent on the rotational diffusion coefficient of the fluorophore.(112) It is expected to be single-exponential only in the case when the internal rotation is fast as compared with an averaged decay rate. As the internal rotation becomes slower, the intensity decay function should exhibit nonexponential behavior. 

Of considerable interest is the fact that not only the steady-state anisotropy but also its kinetics depend on the excitation wavelength. In this case another red-edge effect connected with site photoselection may be observed. Dipole-orientational relaxation may occur not only by rotation of the dipoles surrounding the fluorophore but also by rotation of the aromatic group itself. If red-edge excitation results in the photoselection of fluorophores whose energy of interaction with the environment already corresponds to that in the excited state, then the relaxation-associated rotation should not be observed and the rotation that occurs should be completely Brownian in character.(22) 

at present, fluorescence spectroscopy is capable of providing direct information on molecular dynamics on the nanosecond time scale and can estimate the results of dynamics occurring beyond this range. The present-day multiparametric fluorescence experiment gives new opportunities for interpretation of these data and construction of improved dynamic models. A further development of the theory which would provide an improved description of the dynamics in quantitative terms with allowance for the structural inhomogeneity of protein molecules and the hierarchy of their internal motions is required. 

It should be noted that the dynamics studied by fluorescence methods is the dynamics of relaxation and fluctuations of the electric field. Dipole-orientational processes may be directly related to biological functions of proteins, in particular, charge transfer in biocatalysis and ionic transport. One may postulate that, irrespective of the origin of the charge balance disturbance, the protein molecule responds to these changes in the same way, in accordance with its dynamic properties. If the dynamics of dipolar and charged groups in proteins does play an important role in protein functions, then fluorescence spectroscopy will afford ample opportunities for its direct study. 

So long as the electron distributions of M and R do not overlap appreciably, the system M+R is well-represented by a wave function of the form 

Consideration of short-range effects, in which the repulsive terms which lead to the hump in the energy curve are called into play, is an extremely 

1 We neglect the weaker dispersion interactions responsible for van der Waals forces. 

Berliner, E. (1964). Progress in Physical Organic Chemistry Vol. 2, John Wiley, New York, p. 253. 

Many of the intercalation batteries being studied now are so-called rocking chair or lithium ion cells, in which both electrodes are lithium intercalation compounds. Thus there is a need for electrodes with a low voltage vs lithium (for the anode) as well as those with a high voltage (for the cathode). Early studies of intercalation compounds for electrodes were part of a search for cathodes, not anodes, and may have passed over materials suitable for anodes. 

On a more fundamental side, much of this chapter has focused on lattice-gas models applied to intercalation systems. The application of such models to metallic intercalation compounds is understood, and indeed the models describe some intercalation compounds quantitatively. But more study is needed of systems where the density of states is low, or where the band picture breaks down. 

and Haering, R. R. (1981a) Solid State Comm., 44, 29-32. 

von Sacken, U. and Michal, C. A. (1990b) Solid State Ionics, 44, 87-97. 

Flow Injection Label-free MS Assay Screening of Natural Extracts 

One has to emphasize that MS also is associated with several drawbacks when it comes to bioactivity screening. First of all, the optimum, native conditions for bioactivity screening (pH 7.2, addition of 150 mM sodium chloride) are entirely incompatible with optimum conditions for MS detection which, for ESI-MS, typically require acidic pH values and the presence of organic modifiers to enhance ionization properties of the analytes. Assay development for MS-based assays therefore mainly requires the testing of different assay conditions, particularly the replacement of nonvolatile buffers with MS-compatible volatile buffers. Furthermore, it is essential to monitor ion suppression effects, for example, by the 

We wish to thank Shimadzu BioSciences and Agilent Technologies for their support in MS instrumentation. Furthermore we thank Kiadis BV (Groningen, The Netherlands) for financial support and fruitful discussions. 

Smith Screening for drug discovery the leading question. Nature 2002, 418, 453-459. 

Robards Strategies for the determination of bioactive phenols in plants, fruit and vegetables. 

Albaugh, G. Albert, P. Bradford, V. Cotter, J. Froyd, J. Gaughran, D. Kirsch, M. Lai, A. Rehnig, 

60 40 wt% with sodium dodecyl sulfate as surfactant). The reactor itself consists of a tubular glass reactor (156 cm long with an inner diameter of 2.85 mm). The reaction rate was proportional to the catalyst concentration and decreased with increasing surfactant concentration [84]. This screening concept has also been applied to liquid-liquid systems. As a test reaction, the isomerisation of allylic alcohols to carbonyls with water-soluble catalysts in a biphasic heptane-water system was chosen (Reaction 2)] [50, 85]. The catalysts (metals Rh, Ru, Pd, Ni and ligands sulfonated phosphane or diphosphane ligands) were injected into the liquid carrier 2 (water). The substrates (different allylic alcohols) were injected into the liquid carrier 1 (heptane). 

For example, it will be possible to design peptides that aggregate in well-defined morphology, for example, fibrils of specific and controllable width and twist pitch to act as versatile templates for nanoporous inorganic materials (e.g., silica nanotubes) (Meegan et al., 2004). Another opportunity that opens up will be the ability to produce by precise molecular engineering, a 

Aggeli, A., Bell, M., Boden, N., Carrick L.M., and Strong A.E. Self-assembling peptide polyelectrolyte beta-sheet complexes form nematic hydrogels . Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42(45), 5603-5606 (2003a). 

Aggeli, A., Bell, M., Carrick, L.M., Fishwick, C.W.G., Harding, R., Mawer, P.J., Radford, S.E., Strong A.E., and Boden, N. pH as a trigger of peptide beta-sheet self-assembly and reversible switching between nematic and isotropic phases . J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125(32), 9619-9628 (2003b). 

Our understanding of the enzymatic mechanism of Asp AT has greatly increased since the introduction of site-directed mutagenesis. However, the mechanism is far from being understood completely. We have just begun to identify some critical residues at the active site of this enzyme. These residues are only a small portion of the 410 amino acid residues which comprise AspAT. 

The authors wish to thank to Drs. K. Hirotsu, S. Tanase and A. Arnone for providing the X-ray crystallographic coordinates of AspATs, and to Dr. D. Yamamoto for assistance in molecular modeling, and to Y. Ueno for assistance in preparing the manuscript. 

Christen, D. E. Metzler, John Wiley-Interscience, New York, (1985). 

Hohler, P. Tucker, U. Sauder, Z. Housley-Markovic, I. Fotheringham, M. Edwards, 

Kallen, Z. Markovic-Housley, B. Fol. M. Kania, J. N. Jansonius, in Enzymes Dependent on Pyridoxal Phosphate and Other Carbonyl Compounds as Cofactors (T. Fukui, H. Kagamiyama, K. Soda, H. Wada, eds.,) Pergamon Press, Oxford, (1991) p. 656. 

We are grateful for the provision of comments, papers, and references by Stephen Hashmi, Antonio Arcadi, Silvio Carretin and Sonia Carabineiro. 

Gonzalez-Arellano, A. Corma, M. Iglesias and F. Sanchez, Chem. Commun. (2005) 3451. 

Mizushima, T. Hayashi and M. Tanaka, Proc. Gold 2003, Vancouver, Canada, Sept.-Oct. 2003 http //www.gold.org/discover/sciJndu/goid2003/index.html. 

The role of MR in chemical engineering research is changing. It is now established as a quantitative measurement tool in chemical engineering, and as its 

In conclusion, this chapter has attempted to bring together the measurement capabilities that can be united under the heading of MR techniques . Each of these can be a research field in their own right, but from the perspective of the chemical engineer it is the combination of these methods—particularly in the hierarchy of length-scales they probe—that makes MR methods so powerful. 

We wish to thank Dr. P. Alexander for his help in the preparation of this chapter. 

Callaghan, P. T., Principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Microscopy . Clarendon, Oxford (1991). 

Kimmich, R., NMR Tomography, Diffusometry, Relaxometry . Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (1997). 

The organic food market in Europe is forecast to witness buoyant growth, with the sector 

The markets for fruit and vegetables, cereal and dairy products are the most developed, although there are variations in each country depending on factors such as domestic supply, distribution networks, price premiums and consumer preferences. Key areas for market expansion include the meat sector and the market for processed and convenience foods. The extent to which these sectors will develop depends to a large extent on increased supply. 

At the same time, an effective distribution network is dependent on increases in supply to encourage the entry of new operators and increasing the professionalism of existing operators. Mainstream manufacturers and retailers will become increasingly prevalent in the organic supply chain as they realise the market potential of organic food. 

Beauchemin, R. (1996) Organic Canada. In International Organic Market Study (ed. C. Haest). BioFair, Camar de Comercio de Costa Rica, San Jose. 

Datamonitor (1999) Natural and Organic Food and Drinks, 1999. Datamonitor pic, London. 

Spin trapping can also be used to investigate the different dose-response effects of SOD in rat and rabbit hearts, subjected to ischemia and reperfusion. Does the spin-adduct formation also follow a bell-shaped dose-response relationship observed with SOD Additional studies are clearly needed to explain the protective and deleterious aspects of SOD in ischemia and reperfusion injury. 

Finally, spin trapping may also be used to assess the interaction between oxy radicals formed in the myocardium and nitric oxide released by the vascular endothelium in isolated rat and rabbit heart models. 

This research was supported by NIH grants HL45048 and RR01008. We thank Margaret Wold for excellent technical assistance. 

Paul G. WINYARD1, Christopher J. MORRIS1, Vivienne R. WINROW1, Mone ZAIDI2 and David R. BLAKE1 

1 Inflammation Research Group, The London Hospital Medical College, University of London, Turner Street, London, UK El 2AD, 1 Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, St. George s Hospital Medical School, London, UK 

MODERN ASPECTS OF RARE EARTHS AND THEIR COMPLEXES 

Terbium(III) complexes of tetraazacyclodecane containing two labile water molecules bound to the lanthanide ion gives rise to larger increase in luminescence when the lanthanide chelates to salicylate ion. The mechanism is as follows  

The emission from the terbium aza-sal complex occurs well after the fluorescence from the surrounding biological proteins (Chem. Commun. 2134,2002). 

Computers are now used in the design and development of new chemicals, and their employment in toxicity prediction could lead to improved products that present a reduced hazard to humans. Although computers are useful for performing routine calculations, they do not usually possess insight or rationalization. Therefore, they should represent only one of a number of test procedures used to formulate a full safety evaluation in a given chemical. Where they are used, their results should be interpreted by a panel of expert toxicologists capable of providing an overall view of the likely toxic risk in the human environment. 

Hydrophobic chemicals tend to be toxic as they are often difficult to metabolize and, consequently, accumulate in the body. Many of these are substrates or inducers of cytochrome P450 I or P450 HE, for example, TCDD, 193-198 benzene, PCBs,199-203 and PAHs.204-206 It is therefore common that hydrophobic parameters, such as log P, correlate with toxicity. 

In addition to log P, many other structural parameters have been found to relate to toxicity,209-214 in particular, those involving molecular dimensions and features of electronic structure, especially those pertaining to frontier orbitals. Although QSARs provide strong correlations for congeneric series of chemicals, they are not always applicable to diverse structures. 

There are examples in the literature where different QSAR approaches using different parameters can all produce good correlations with toxicity or 

State-of-the-art NEMD simulations include calculating the physical properties of prototypical hydrocarbon lubricants typically consisting of 30-50 carbon units. Because of the advent of supercomputers and parallel architecture, these calculations are being performed in a timely manner. 

Without doubt, the advent of carbon nanotubes has opened up innovative perspectives for research and development of carbon electrodes. In this chapter, we have attempted to highlight the electrochemical properties of carbon nanotubes by rooting them mainly on their structural, electronic and chemical properties. If chirality of SWNTs could be controlled, it would be possible to probe electrochemically the unique electronic properties of the tubes with their corresponding unique DOS distribution and establish direct correlations between electronic structure and electrochemistry. However, so far, most of their electrochemical applications are based on ensembles of CNTs (MWNTs or SWNTs) in thin films supported on conductive surfaces or composites. Such ensembles, not so well defined from the structural point of view, contain a mixture of tubes with different diameters and DOS 

However, behind the promising electrochemical devices, there are still many fundamental issues that affect the electrochemical response and that are poorly controlled. Such issues can be found right from the first steps of CNT growth, purification, separation, and so on. For instance, there are many unsettled issues in the fundamental CNT growth mechanism, hence CNT growth with controlled length, diameter and chirality is still not possible. Other difficulties comprise the removal of metal impurities from the tubes, the lack of practical techniques for CNT separation according to their chiralities and hence electronic properties, the control of defects/ 

Advances in such issues could further improve nanotube uniformity, decrease the dispersion in the results of different research groups, improve the device efficiency and also provide further insights into fundamental electrochemical questions. 

1 McCreery, R.L. (1991) in Carbon Electrodes Structural Effects on Electron Transfer Kinetics in Electroanalytical Chemistry (ed. A.J. Bard), Vol. 17, Dekker, New York. 

17 Agiii, L., Yanez-Sedeno, P. and Pingarron, J.M. (2008) Analytica Chimica Acta, 

The structural classification of the zincins discussed above has been based on the three-dimensional data on zinc proteases currently available. These data (Fig. 2) are from zinc-dependent endopeptidases. It is therefore not mandatory for these enzymes to interact with the ter-minii of their protein substrates. However, for the zinc-dependent amino- and carboxypepti-dases that possess the HexxH consensus [3-5], this additional requirement for substrate recognition may result in a three-dimensional structure which is considerably modified from the astacin scaffold observed for the endoproteases. 

The growing family of known divalent cation-dependent proteases such as insulinase [51] and dibasic convertase [52], with the variant consensus HxxeH, also present interesting questions as to the possibility of a mirrored active site with or without conservation of the overall topology. Conversely, it is possible that entirely different proteins which have no zinc dependency and completely separate function may adopt the zinc endoprotease topology, simply because this fold provides a stable modular scaffold useful in the construction of multidomain proteins. Results of further structural studies are eagerly awaited. 

5 Structure-Based Design of Potent Beta-Lactamase Inhibitors 

Gubernator, I. Heinze-Krauss, P. Angehrn, R.L. Charnas, C. Hubschwerlen, C. Oefrier, M.G.P. Page and F. K. Winkler 

All in all, we can predict—or even allow ourselves to imagine—further exciting advances in the science and technology of solar photon conversion in nanostructured and photoelectrochemical systems in the years ahead. 

A large part of a lipid system is formed by the solvent molecules. When the investigator s concern is limited to the bilayer region—for example, in bilayer-protein systems—inclusion of water places a significant overhead on the simulations. Accurate modeling of the solvent-head group interactions 

The accurate modeling of lipid systems is a challenging field, and different strategies have been adopted to study different phenomena in these systems. A 

As an outgrowth of the rapid development of experimental and theoretical approaches to biological electron transfer, significant progress in the 1990s may be expected in the following areas. 

Thermodynamics of electron transfer. It should become possible to specifically alter reduction potentials by suitable modification of proteins and/or redox groups. The shifts in E° arising from these modifications should also be accurately predictable from theoretical calculations. Reasonable agreement between observation and theory has been already reported for the effects of certain electrostatic modifications on E° (49, 53, 54, 59). The more difficult problem of ab initio calculations of E° values will take longer to accomplish, although encouraging results have been described for quinones (194). 

Theoretical predictions of the E° shifts accompanying redox protein modification are in many respects analogous to estimation of the effects of protein modification on the p a values of ionizable groups. A systematic comparison between experimental and theoretical pK shifts in subtilisin (195-197) demonstrated considerable success in the ability to modify pAT values in a rational manner. Similar results should be obtainable for manipulation of reduction potentials. 

Kinetics of electron tranter. The central problem in investigations of the kinetics of electron transfer is to establish the mechanism and pathways of electron transfer. Is the through space mechanism relevant to this process, or have specific electron conduction pathways (through bond or superexchange) been designed into electron transfer proteins Once this question is resolved, then a quantitative understanding of electron transfer rates may be feasible. 

An instructive parallel may be drawn between the identification and characterization of electron transfer pathways and the identification and characterization of protein folding pathways (199-202). In the simplest cases, both processes are intramolecular and involve a transition between an initial and final state. An advantage to understanding electron transfer pathways is that both states are structurally ordered, whereas protein folding converts a disordered initial state into a structurally ordered final state. In both situations, a number of mechanisms for this transition have been envisioned, ranging from a few dominant pathways to many, different pathways. The challenge in both cases is to develop experimental approaches that will define and enumerate the number of pathways. 

The economic potential of marine manganese deposits and the potential of these deposits as paleoenvironmental indicators are directly related to the chemistry of manganese, its associated transition metals and other key elements adsorbed on to the surface of these deposits. It is this complex interplay of these factors which makes the study of marine manganese deposits so intriguing. Unfortunately, research on deep-sea manganese nodules and crasts has been held hostage to the economic potential of these deposits. Time will tell if these deposits are to become a major source of metals for the world as was once thought. 

Figs 11.28 Simplified E -pH diagram for Mn at 25°C, 1 atmosphere pressure and in pure water for a limited number of aqueous species and solid phases of Mn (after Garrels and Christ 1965 Fig 7.28a). 

In your opinion, what are the advantages of plotting an Eh, pH diagram of the type shown in Fig. 

4 compared with this older type of Eh, pH diagram pioneered by Garrels and Christ (1965) What are the limitations of Fig. 11.4 in deducing the form of Fe in deep-sea manganese nodule  

Bernard, R, Medina-Franco, J.L., Maggiora, G.M. Large compound databases for structure-activity relationships studies in drug discovery. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2007, 7,851-60. 

Jonsdottir, S.O., Jorgensen, F.S., Brunak, S. Prediction methods and databases within cheminfor-matics Emphasis on drugs and drug candidates. Bioinformatics 2005,21,2145-60. 

Bioactivity Databases. In Triggle, D., Taylor, editors. Comprehensive Medicinal Chemistry II, vol. 3. Oxford Elsevier 2006, pp. 293-313. 

Wheeler, D.L., Barrett, T., Benson, D.A., Bryant, S.H., Canese, K., Chetvemin, V., Church, D.M., DiCuccio, M., Edgar, R., et al. Database resources of the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007,35, D5-12. 

Seiler, K.P., George, G.A., Happ, M.P., Bodycombe, N.E., Carrmski, H.A., Norton, S., Brudz, S., Sullivan, J.P., Muhlich, J., Serrano, M., Ferraiolo, P., ToUiday, N.J., Schreiber, S.L., Clemons, P.A. ChemBank A small-molecule screening and cheminformatics resource database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007,36, D351-9. 

The importance of the solid support and the way in which certain supports can influence the outcome of the catalysis also needs deeper understanding and rationalization. The interplay between media, conditions and support must also be delineated. This issue is certainly related to the operating reaction mechanism and the fact that certain pathways compete or one may prevail, depending on the conditions. The apparent contradiction about the lack of influence of the support on oxidation in aqueous media compared to solventless conditions deserves specific studies. 

Aerobic oxidation is not going to be limited to alcohol oxidation. Apparently we are closer to finding suitable catalysts for alcohol oxidation, but oxidation of alkenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, alkylaromatics, imines, amines, sulfur compounds etc. will require much work in the forthcoming years. In some cases, the presence of radical initiators, even though in minor quantities, may serve to promote the oxidation catalyzed by noble metal nanopartides, and gold in particular [56, 108]. Thus, there is no doubt that the next years will witness exciting developments in the field of metal nanopartides for aerobic oxidation. 

Financial support by the Spanish DGI (project CTQ2006-06859) is gratefully 

Hermann (EcL), Synthetic Methods of Organometallic and Inorganic Chemistry, Volume 9 Transition Metals Part 3, Thieme, Stuttgart, 2000. 

28 Organic Syntheses with Noble Metal Catalysts, Academic Press, 

Brigger I, Dubernet C, Couvreur P. Nanoparticles in cancer therapy and diagnosis. Adv Drug Del Rev 2002 54 631-651. 

Allen TM. Ligand-targeted therapeutics in anticancer therapy. Nature Rev Drug Discov 2002 2 750-763. 

Brekke OH, Sandlie I. Therapeutic antibodies for human diseases at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Nature Rev Drug Discov 2003 2 52-62. 

Duncan R, Dimitrijevic S, Evagorou E. The role of polymer conjugates in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. STP 

We are supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health to J.Y.J.W. and a postdoctoral fellowship from the Lady Tata Foundation to S.K.C. J.YJ.W. is the Herbert Stern Professor of Biology at the University of California, San Diego. We wish to thank members of the Wang laboratory for critical comments, and La Jolla Scientific Management (LaJollaSciManag san.rr.com) for the graphic work. 

and Canman, C. E. (2002). Phosphorylation of threonine 68 promotes oligomerization and autophosphorylation of the Chk2 protein kinase via the forkhead-associated domain. / BM. Chem. 277, 19389-19395. 

Itzhaki, J. E., Sullivan, M. J., Carpenter, A. J., and Porter, A. C. (2000). Repression of GDKl and other genes with CDE and GHR promoter elements during DNA dam ednduced G(2)/M arrest in human cells. Mol. CM. Biol. 20, 2358-2366. 

Bakkenist, G. J., and Kastan, M. B. (2003). DNA dam e activates ATM through intermolecular autophosphorylation and dimer dissociation. Nature 421, 499-506. 

Bartek, J., Falck, J., and Lukas, J. (2001). CHK2 kinase—a busy messenger. Nat. Reu. Mol. Cell Biol. 2, 877-886. 

Despite the large amount of novel chemistry that has arisen from the chemical studies of nitrogen fixation, there is nothing to suggest an alternative to the Haber Process for the large-scale ( 100 ton per day) production 

The conversion of dinitrogen to ammonia is shown in Equations 33 and 34 to emphasize two approaches. 

The direct production of organic nitrogen compounds using dinitrogen has received little attention outside the reactions of organic halides with coordinated dinitrogen. Alkenes and alkynes would be viable carbon-atom 

Therefore, it is unclear what, if any, surplus agricultural production will be available for use as a source of renewable raw materials. Market demand for high-value products may stimulate increases in production, but the degree to which this is possible remains to be seen. 

Regalbuto, J. (ed.) (2007) Catalyst Preparation Science and Engineering, CRC Press LCC, Boca Raton. 

Knozinger, H. and Weitkamp). (eds) (1999) Preparation of Solid Catalysts, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim. 

de Jong, K.P. (1999) Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci., 4, 55. 

As also argued elsewhere [45], virtual screening is currently underused. This is particularly surprising in the case of academic laboratories, as most shape similarity is free of charge for academic purposes, in some cases the required computer resources are modest, and experimental validation requires sufficient resources to test as little as tens of virtual screening hits. More applications of shape matching tools are expected in the next few years, owing to the wide accessibility of freely available shape similarity software.  

2) Molecular Libraries Initiative, http //mli.nih.gov/mli/ (accessed March 6, 2011). 

1 Drewry, D.H. and Macarron, R. (2010) Enhancements of screening collections to address areas of unmet medical need an industry perspective. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 14, 289—298. 

2 Peakman, X, Franks, S., White, C., and Beggs, M. (2003) Delivering the power of discovery in large pharmaceutical organizations. Drug Discovery Today, 8,203—211. 

In recent years, the role played by the electrolyte has become increasingly versatile due to the adoption of various cathodes, anodes, and separators as a result of the intensification of technological development in the field of LIB materials. Electrolytes and additives are key materials for optimizing the performance of materials used in cathodes, anodes, and separators and strongly affect critical parts governing battery performance parameters such as the cycle life characteristics, preservation characteristics, and output characteristics. 

When intensive research and development of additives is conducted on a daily basis, some compounds might be serendipitously found and industriaUzed as additives. 

However, such development has produced only a handful of additives that have truly estabhshed themselves as commerciahzed additives. The reason why additive development is difficult is that additives always have side effects. Thus, the key to developing new additives is to connol the side effects, like in pharmaceutical developmoit, in order to achieve good overall battery performance. Careful consideration of the phenomenon inside the batteries is essential in the development of novel additives. 

The aim of this chapter is to present information from papers and patents in functional and historical order, as well as to provide numerous examples of additives, with the hope that it would be of assistance in future research on additives. 

Wrodnigg, G. Besenhard, J. Winter, M., Ethylene sulfite as electrolyte additive for lithium-ion cells with graphitic anodes, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1999,146 (2), 470-472. 

The author is deeply grateful to the late Prof. K. Seki of Nagoya University for collaboration work for more than 30 years. He also thanks Prof. S. Kera and Prof. K. Okudaira, Dr. H. Yamane, Dr. S. Duhm, and many Ph.D. students of Chiba University, and Dr. X.T Hao of the University of Melbourne for their contribution. 

Salaneck, W.R., Seki, K., Kahn, A., and Pireaux, J.-J. (eds) (2002) Conjugated Polymers and Molecular Interfaces Science and Technology for Photonic and Optoelectronic Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York. 

6 Heimel, G., Salzmann, I., Duhm, S., and Koch, N. (2011) Chem. Mater., 

19 Meier, H. (1974) Chapter 10, in Organic Semiconductors, vol. 2 (ed. H.F. Ebel), Verlag Chemie, Weinheim. 

22 Sdinsh, E.A. andcapek, V. (1994) Organic Molecular Crystals Interaction, Localization and Transport Phenomena, Springer, 

Aden A, Ruth M, Ibsen K, Jechura J, Neeves K, Sheehan J, Wallace B, Montague L, Slayton A, Lukas J. et al. (2002). LignoceUulosic hiomass to ethanol process design and economics utdizing co-current dilute acid prehydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis for corn stover. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. NREL/TP-510-32438. 

(2006). ASAE D497.5 Agricultural Machinery Management Data. St Joseph, MI American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 

Coble CG, Egg R. (1987). Dry matter losses during hay production and storage of sweet sorghum used for methane production. Biomass, 14, 209-217. 

Darr Ml, Shah AJ. (2012). Biomass storage An update on industrial solutions for baled biomass feedstocks. Biofuels, 3, 321-332. 

Gregg JS, Izaurralde RC. (2010). Effect of crop residue harvest on long-term crop yield, soil erosion and nutrient balance trade-offs for a sustainable bioenergy feedstock. Biofuels, 1, 69-83. 

The authors thank the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for financial support SR/FT/CS-136/2011 and CSIR-NEIST project no. GPP 269) and also the Director, CSIR - North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat, India, for the interest in this work and facilities. 

Melucci, E. Treossi, L. Ortolani, G. Giambastiani, V. Morandi, P. Klar, C. Casiraghi, P. Samori, and V. Palermo, Journal of Materials Chemistry, Vol. 20, p. 9052, 2010. 

Sharma, G. Darabdhara, T. M. Reddy, A. Borah, P. Bezboruah, P. Gogoi, 

Yong Qin, Juan Li, Yong Kong, Xiazhang Li, and Huaiguo Xue, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, Vol. 161, p. 172, 2014. 

Ashokkumar and T. Mason, Sonochemistry, In Kirk-Othmer Encylcopedia of Chemical Technology John Wiley Sons New York, pp. 1-34, 2007. 

Slow growth can be expected for plasticisers and antimicrobials, because both are still strongly linked to flexible PVC, despite the increasing interest in using biocides in other resins. 

The following paragraphs give some background information about a few specific additives. 

The global market for antimicrobials in plastics was 25,000 tonnes in 2001, and it has been valued more recently (in 2003) at US 122 M, at the active manufacture level. This represents a 40% growth over the previous ten years. North America accounts for approximately 40% of consumption, and its global share is declining, according to Biocides Information Services BRG Townsend puts the US share at one-third of the market by value. 

The dependence of antimicrobials on flexible PVC has not helped growth in demand, but usage is now spreading to polyolefins and other resins. 

The usage of biocides for all purposes, including wood treatment (not just plastics) is highly region-dependent, with North America in the lead, followed by Japan. Western Europe and Asia-Pacific come joint-third, followed by South America. 

Boumans, Theory of Spectrochemical Excitation, Hilger and Watts, London, 1966. 

Thompson and J. N. Walsh, Handbook of Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry, Blackie, Glasgow, 1989. 

Parsons, A. Forster, and D. Anderson, An Allas of Spectral Interferences in ICP Spectroscopy, Plenum Press, New York, 1980. 

Fassel, V. J. Peterson, and M. A. Floyd, Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy. An Atlas of Spectral Information, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1985. 

In the case of heavy atoms improved experimental accuracy will pay oil in all elements, particularly in Cs and to a somewhat lesser extent in 71 because of the accuracy of the atomic theory and the degree of understanding of the levels involved in these two atoms. Because the transition of interest involves a / = 0 state, Pb also offers some advantages for advanced atomic calculations. Improved measurements of Qw will yield more refined comparisons of the type shown in Eqs. (43)-(45) above. It remains to be seen whether improved experimental accuracy will allow resolution of the C2 terms of Eqs. (8) and (11), which should show up as small fractional differences in PNC between hyperfine components of a transition. The ongoing experiments in atomic hydrogen offer the hope of determining C and C2 with no uncertainties in atomic theory, and furthermore are sensitive to radiative corrections that test the essence of gauge theories at 100 Gev/c momentum transfer.  

In this article we have discussed experiments and theories that are consistent with the principle of time-reversal symmetry. There are other 

It is clear there is still much to be done in this very young field of atomic PNC. The mysteries of elementary particle interactions still have great relevance for atomic physics, and in turn, atomic physics continues to offer possibilities of new insights into these interactions. 

Note added in proof Since this article was completed, a number of new experimental results have been published. New measurements have been carried out on the Cs 539 nm line at Paris and Boulder, on the 71 293 nm line at Berkeleyand on the Bi 648 nm line at Moscow. The overall conclusions given in connection with Table 3 remain unchanged. 

Fortson and L. Wilets, in Advances in Atomic and Molecular Physics (edited by 

Currently, both acetic acid and calcium propionate are used as preservatives in British bread. If added correctly, both afford protection against the rope organism. As far as mould is concerned, the hygienic standard under which the bread is produced is probably more important than the presence or absence of a preservative. 

While the future of preserving bread by the addition of an organic acid seems secure, an alternative means for producing bread without the need for preservatives is receiving much interest in Britain. This is the use of the sour dough process. Although this process is popular on the continent and in parts of America for the production of rye bread, it has not been used in Britain except by small speciality bakers. In this process, dough 

Barton-Wright, E. (1943) The estimation of rope spores in wheaten flour and other products. /. Soc. Chem. Ind. 62, 33-37. 

Chamberlain, N. and Collins, T.H. (1979) The Chorleywood Bread Process The role of oxygen and nitrogen. Bakers Digest 53(1), 18-19, 22-24. 

(1985) Tumorgene Wirkung von Propionsaure und der Vorwagenschleimhaut, von Ratten in Futterungsversuch. BundergesmdhoL 28, 322. 

During recent years, a significant number of organic electrosyntheses have been scaled-up to pilot or commercial scale, and some of these have been described at conferences and in reports or book chapters. It is important that research teams starting the development of a new electrosynthetic process learn from the labors of others, and do not repeat their efforts and mistakes to slowly reinvent the wheel is not an advance  

Over the last few decades, considerable interest has been devoted to biodegradable polymers because of the prominent role their use can play in addressing the serious 

Since the first bending-type actuators from ICPs were demonstrated in the early 1990s, there have been considerable advances in actuator performance, applications and in the understanding of actuation mechanisms. In terms of performance improvements, most attention has been given to free-standing films. Around the turn of the century, the best ICP actuation performances (reported by several different groups) were around 5 % maximum strain, 1 %/s maximum strain rate and 5 MPa maximum sustained stress (isotonic). Since 2000, significant improvements have been reported in each of these areas  

While these improvements are impressive, the maximum performances in each area have not been achieved simultaneously. The highest stress actuators, for example, produce an actuation strain of only 2 % [56]. It is particularly useful to have actuators that give simultaneously high stroke, fast response and can operate against high stresses. A web based resource for tracking the published actuator performances of ICPs (and other actuator materials) has been developed by the Molecular Mechatronics Group at the University of British Columbia [74]. 

While the focus of much of the research to date has been in understanding mechanisms and improving the basic performance, several other areas require further work. Improvements can be achieved in the following areas  

and Wallace, G.G. (1999) Conducting electroactive polymer-based 

Trevedi, D.C. and Dhawan, S.K. (1993) Sheilding of Electromagnetic Interference using Polyaniline, Synth Met., 59, 267-72. 

Although the utility of PET imaging to study cell trafficking in this chapter has focused on tumor metastasis as an illustration of the relevant principles involved, similar approaches might be useable with other cell types, especially those with elevated glucose metabolism. Hematopoietic cells or some precursor (stem) cells are also possible candidates. 

Nicolson GL. Molecular mechanisms of cancer metastasis tumor and host properties and the role of oncogenes and suppressor genes. Curr Opin Oncol 1991 3 75 92. 

Liotta LA, Steeg PS, Steiler-Stevenson WG. Cancer metastasis and angiogenesis an imbalance of positive and negative regulation. Cell 1991 64 327-336. 

Fidler IJ. The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis the seed and soil hypothesis revisited. Nat Rev Cancer 2003 3 453-458. 

Kannagi R. Transcriptional regulation of expression of carbohydrate ligands for cell adhesion molecules in the selectin family. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001 491 267-278. 

Some other major issues limiting the elinical trials and dietary recommendations are the variant effects of dose (quantity) and type of tea, specifically green and black. Most studies show some effectiveness with the application of medium to extremely high quantities. However, small-scale studies looking at risk factors and mechanistic substitute endpoints have also provided clues to its effectiveness. The matter is further confused by the variable bioavailability of these compounds, which depends upon human gut absorption and one s food matrix. Thus, to date, it remains unclear how to formulate dietary recommendations regarding the quantity and type of tea to be consumed by the general and diseased populations. 

An important clinical implementation is the difference in the potential application of the extracts of individual tea components in comparison to tea itself Compared to the variable reports for tea usage, the purified components, such as EGCG, have large bodies of evidence of favorable effects. However, as willi whole tea, there have been no randomized outcome studies regarding preparations, doses, and endpoints, which make it difficult to make specific recommendations. The purified components, on the other hand, are more randomized but face the obstacle of short-term acute effects reflective of their short plasma half-life of 1-2 hours [130], Considering all of these factors, it could be concluded that concerted efforts are still required to establish recommended dietary levels of tea and tea constituents for both general and diseased populations. 

Although tea has been used for thousands of years, the overall potential and the mechanism of action of the established properties of both green and black tea components have yet to be fully explored. Practical 

Development of additional precise and sensitive methods with more delegate models, along with the development of good analytical biomarkers, will provide better imderstanding of tea s interaction with endogenous and exogenous factors. To further e q)lore the effect of tea consumption on cancer in humans, further research on the pharmacokinetics of tea components and their mechanisms of action is required. The development of biomarkers for tea consumption, in addition to molecular markers for biological effects, will contribute to better future studies. 

Senanayake, S.P.J.N. 2013. Green tea extract Chemistry, antioxidant properties and food applications—A review . Journal of Functtonal Foods., 5 1529-1541. 

A wide range of newly introduced nanoscale materials is expected to expand the realm of nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors and biosensors. In addition, the judicious coupling of two different nanomaterials (i.e., inorganic/carbon nanohybrids) has been shown to offer further improvements in the analytical performance, superior to that observed when a single nanomaterial is used [55]. Such nanobioelectronic devices are expected to have a major impact upon ensuring our food safety or water quality, and upon other areas ranging from clinical diagnostics to security surveillance. 

Fedlheim, D.L. and Foss, C.A. 2QQ ) Metal Nanoparticles Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications, CRC Press. 

(2005) Nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors. Analyst, 130, 421-426. 

Martin, C.R. (1996) Membrane-based synthesis of nanomaterials. Chem. Mater., 8, 

Rational Design of Central Metabolic Pathway to Increase the Yield and Productivity of Isoprene 

The logical design of the central metabolic pathway is vital for the commercial production of isoprene, as well as the precursor of isoprene biosynthesis derived from an important intermediate component in the central metabolic pathway (acetyl-CoA for MVA, Pyr and G3P for MEP). First, the central metabolic pathway should be reasonably designed to provide an optimal flux of precursors for the biosynthesis of isoprene in a balanced ratio and without carbon loss. Second, the strategies for the rational design of the central metabolic pathway should be different from the biosynthesis pathway of isoprene. 

The ED pathway can be engineered for isoprene production via the MEP pathway, which can provide the balanced ratio of Pyr and G3P to increase the productivity of isoprene. EMP in tandem with the MEP pathway is commonly used for isoprene biosynthesis in E. coli. However, the highest isoprene production and yield were achieved from ED pathway, which were 3 and 6 times higher than those of EMP [72]. This is because imbalanced distribution of Pyr and G3P existed in 

while Pyr and G3P were simultaneously generated in the ED pathway. Additionally, in terms of precursor generation and energy/reducing-equivalent supply, EDP + PPP was found to be the ideal feed module for MEP [72]. 

In spite of the fact that the MEP pathway delivers higher theoretical yields of isoprene from sugars than the MVA pathway (see Table I6.I), the best yield is still significantly belowthe calculated theoretical maximum. It appears that the carbon 

Thompson, Older blood pressure medications-do they still have a place, Am. J. Cardiol, 108 308-316, 2006. 

Heijden, D.l. Jacobs, W. Snoeijer, D. Mallard, R. Verpoorte, The Catharanthus alkaloids Pharmacognosy and biotechnology, Curr. Med. Chem., 11 607-628, 2004. 

Kingston, D.J. Newman, Taxoids Cancer-fighting compounds from nature, Curr. 

Hadden, Goat s rue - French lilac - Italian fitch - Spanish sainfoin gallega officinalis and metformin The Edinburgh connection,/. R. Coll Physicians Edinb., 35 258-260,2005. 

Demain, R.P. Blander, The beta-lactam antibiotics Past, present, and future, Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek., 75 5-19, 1999. 

In general, however, enzymes may still be somewhat expensive to compete with the conventional chemical catalysts for the production of bulk chemicals. Research in industrial biotechnology has now provided tools for discovering as well as developing novel and robust catalysts. The enzyme industry has come of age and enzymes can indeed be produced at low cost provided there is demand. For example, enzymes are already widely used in bulk quantities as additives in detergents for improved functional performance. 

with increasing interest in bio-based products and an increase in demand for environmentally benign processes and products, the development, availability and application of enzymes for the production of surfactants and other chemicals will be promoted. 

1 For selected reviews on chiral Bronsted add catalysis, see (a) Akiyama, T., Itoh, 

Br0nsted Acids Chiral (Thio)urea Derivatives 

8- biphenylenediol and phenol derivatives as catalysts. The superior efficiency of exphcit double H-bonding catalysts over monodentate H-bond donors was demonstrated two equivalents of a monodentate catalyst 600 times more acidic than 

8- biphenylenediol were needed to match its reaction rate enhancement [3]. Inspired by these results, Kelly and coworkers synthesized an electron-deficient 

Comprehensive Enanhosekctive Organocataiysis Catalysts, Reactions, and Applications, First Edition. 

Hitchcock and B. W. Nichols, Plant Lipid Biochemistry, Academic Press, London (1971). 

Mendiola-Morgenthaler and W. Eichenberger, in Structure, Function and Metabolism of Plant Lipids (P.-A. Siegenthaler and W. Eichenberger, eds.), p. 405, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1984). 

Murata, O. Ishizaki, and I. Nishida, in Plant Membranes Structure, Assembly and Function (J. L. Harwood and T. J. Walton, eds.), p. 223, The Biochemical Society, London (1988). 

Harwood and M. J. Price-Jones, in Phosphatidate Phosphohydrolase (D. N. Brindley, ed.), Vol. 2, p. 1, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida (1987). 

Lessire, J.-J. Bessoule, and C. Cassagne, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1006, 35 (1989). 

In addition, we have succeeded in inversion of the enantioselectivity of AMDase using a rational design approach. Although the G74C/C188S mutant produced high yields of the (S)-enantiomer, the decarboxylation activity was much lower than wild-type AMDase. We have successfully improved the activity of an artificial (S)-selective AMDase variant using directed evolution. 

Further advancement of biocatalysis will require the use of directed evolution to bridge the functional gap between wild-type and desired biocatalyst properties. These studies underscore the power of directed evolution to create artificial enzymes derived from wild-type enzymes with the desired catalytic activity. Directed evolution techniques will continue to fulfill the promise of biocatalysis for industrial applications. 

Green Processes for the Synthesis of Chiral littermediates for the Development of Drugs 

A number of review articles [9-20] have described the use of enzymes in organic synthesis. This chapter provides many examples of the industrial use of enzymes for the synthesis of key intermediates for the development of pharmaceuticals. 

Green Biocatalysis, First Edition. Edited by Ramesh N. Patel. 

Effluent from a Food Factory (2) A food factory has been operated using a membrane module system of our company installed in their effluent process. Despite of the raw water having very high values such as BOD 1000-2000 mg/L, MLSS 8000-10,000 mg/L, sludge viscosity about 300 Pa-s, the system has been operated stably showing a satisfactory level of quality such as BOD of around 1 mg/L and SS of not higher than the detection limit. 

The following three topics were exemplified in this chapter  

A unique membrane filtration system using ozone for high permeation flux 

A unique cylindrical module design for high performance on MBR system 

These are examples of the construction of a total membrane engineered for fouling resistance. 

The driving forces behind radio interferometry for the past 50 years have been the quest for higher sensitivity and angular resolution. These principles will continue to drive radio interferometry over the next decade. 

Sensitivity, Radio Frequency interference, and imaging Aigorithms 

At meter and centimeter wavelengths the primary emission mechanisms of celestial sources are either synchrotron or thermal bremsstrahlung, both continuum pro- 

Challenges posed by millimeter interferometers include both the mechanical stability and tolerances of the antennas and the effect of the troposphere. Like antennas at any other wavelength, the surfaces of the antennas must be smooth enough that most of the incident radiation is reflected to the focus rather than scattered. Mechanical tolerances are particularly demanding given that the typical millimeter-wave antenna is only a factor of 2-3 smaller in diameter than a centimeter-wavelength antenna. 

A crucial imaging problem for millimeter interferometers is that the sizes of the celestial sources being imaged are commonly larger than the smallest spatial frequency they sample X/d). Routine use of the mosaicing technique will be required to recover full information about the coherence function. 

A lot of research is progressing which is directed at the intelligent detection, manipulation and utilization of individual molecules. Many an inspiration is obtained from biological organisms, where complex molecular systems do all the work. On the other hand, modification of nature s design often proves useful to meet technological requirements. 

In this exciting new development, progress often comes quite unexpected and predictions are rather shortlived. With these reservations, I will briefly discuss the future potential of two of the areas discussed, namely DNA computation and molecular fabrication / nanotechnology. 

However there should be a more elegant way of automatization of molecular computation the molecular way. If molecules could be programmed to perform the basic discrimination and separation steps in molecular computing, most of the amplification steps in Adleman s protocol could be omitted. Basically, he had to amplify small amounts of DNA to produce big amounts, because he had to detect the DNA on a gel and to cut out the band etc. If the whole protocol could be kept on the scale of a few molecules with the same sequence (one would wish to keep four or five backup copies to avoid trouble from reading errors in DNA replication), the procedure would be much simpler, much faster and less expensive. Just at the end of the calculation, one might need an amplification step in order to be able to read the result. 

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A second series of additives comprises those that improve the octane number (see Chapter 5). We will examine in succession the role played by these additives, substances currently used, and the future prospects concerning additives in this area. 

Future Prospects for Additives to Improve the Octane Number... 

H. Nikaido iu M. Stalton and G. A. Shockman, eds., p-Eactam Mntibiotics Mode of Fiction, Recent Developments and Future Prospects, Academic Press,... 

K. R. BuUock, "The Development and AppHcations of Storage Batteries—Historical Perspectives and Future Prospects," in Proceedings, 7th Australian Electrochemistry Conference, 1988. 

Anthraquinone dyes have been produced for many decades and have covered a wide range of dye classes. In spite of the complexity of production and relatively high costs, they have played an important role in the areas where excellent properties ate requited, because they have excellent lightfastness and leveling properties with brUhant shades that ate not attainable with other chtomophotes. However, recent increases in environmental costs have become a serious problem, and future prospects for the anthraquinone dye industry ate not optimistic. Some traditional manufacturers have stopped the production of a certain dye class or dye intermediates that were especially burdened by environmental costs, eg, vat dyes and their intermediates derived from anthraquinone-l-sulfonic acid and 1,5-disulfonic acid. However, several manufacturers have succeeded in process improvement and continue production, even expanding their capacity. In the forthcoming century the woddwide framework of production will change drastically. 

MODERN ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY ACHIEVEMENTS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS... 

Kientz Ch.E. Cliromatography and mass spectrometry of chemical warfare agents, toxins and related compounds state of the art and future prospects // J.Cliromatogr. A. 814 (1998) 1. 

Versteeg, M. F. 1987 External Safety Policy in the Netherlands an approach to risk management. In Proceedings of the Technical Committee Meeting, Status, Experience, and Future Prospects for the Development of Probabilistic Safety Criteria, Vienna, 27-31 January. 

NRA is an effective technique for measuring depth profiles of light elements in solids. Its sensitivity and isotope-selective character make it ideal for isotopic tracer experiments. NRA is also capable of profiling hydrogen, which can be characterized by only a few other analytical techniques. Future prospects include further application of the technique in a wider range of fields, three-dimensional mapping with microbeams, and development of an easily accessible and comprehensive compilation of reaction cross sections. 

The second factor listed above that affects the growth of plastics, namely improved capability, is self-explanatory, but the third, the decrease in relative costs for plastics, requires some explanation, particularly as this may have relevance to future prospects. 

Hanjalic, K. Adv.inced turbulence enclosure models A view of current status and future prospects. Int. ]. Heat Fluid Flow, vol. 15, pp. 178-203, 1994. 

Schipper, L., and Meyers, S. (1992). Energy Efficiency and Human Activity Past Trends, Future Prospects. New York Cambridge University Press. 

United Nations. Economic Commission for Europe. (1983). An EfFicicnt Energy Future Prospect for Europe and Nonh Ameriea. Boston Author. 

Motility and Parasitic Protozoans Challenges and Future Prospects... 

Future Prospects for the Treatment of Inherited Muscle Diseases... 

FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF INHERITED MUSCLE DISEASES... 

Redefine their roles in organizations and assess future prospects. 

Kelly, D.P. Norris, P.R. Brlerley, C.L. In Microbial Technology Current State and Future Prospects (Bull, A.T. Ellwood, D.C. Ratledge, C., Ed. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, 1979 pp 263-308. 

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