Other Products

The major products produced by gasification of coal have been described earlier. However, there is a series of products that are called by older (even archaic) names that should also be mentioned here as clarification. 

Producer gas is a low-Btu gas obtained from a coal gasifier (fixed-bed) upon introduction of air instead of oxygen into the fuel bed. The composition of the producer gas is approximately 28% v/v carbon monoxide, 55% v/v nitrogen, 12% v/v hydrogen, and 5% v/v methane with some carbon dioxide. 

Water gas is a medium-Btu gas which is produced by the introduction of steam into the hot fuel bed of the gasifier. The composition of the gas is approximately 50% v/v hydrogen and 40% v/v carbon monoxide with small amounts of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. 

Town gas is a medium-Btu gas that is produced in the coke ovens and has the approximate composition 55% v/v hydrogen, 27% v/v methane, 6% v/v carbon monoxide, 10% v/v nitrogen, and 2% v/v carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide can be ranoved from the gas by catalytic treatment with steam to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen. 

Synthetic natural gas (SNG) is methane obtained from the reaction of carbon monoxide or carbon with hydrogen. Depending on the methane concentration, the heating value can be in the range of high-Btu gases. 

In this chapter and throughout this book different RP products have been presented that only provide an introduction to the many produced during the past half century. New products tend to always be on the horizon. 

Zoltek Companies Inc. (St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A.) receive a 1 million lb order for its commercial grade fiber tow, the largest single order the 

RP high technology has been in the sports and leisure markets, in the shape of advanced materials that were originally developed for aerospace applications. Carbon fiber-RPs is used for fishing rods, pole vault pools, golf clubs, tennis racquets, kayaks, and others. In these products, justification was based on their ability to provide considerable improvement in operational efficiency (Table 6.8). 

Fishing rods Pultrusion Roving Polyester Vinyl ester 

Hydrocarbon resins comprise a range of low-molecular-weight products (M 3000) used as adhesives, hot-melt coatings, tackifying agents, inks, and additives in rubber. These include products based on monomers derived from petroleum as well as plant sources. The petroleum-derived products include polymers produced from various alkenes, isoprene, piperylene, styrene, a-methylstyrene, vinyltuolene, and dicyclopentadiene. The plant-derived products include polyterpenes obtained by the polymerization of dipentene, limonene, 

The polymerization of alkyl vinyl ethers is of some commercial importance. The homopolymers, which can be obtained only by cationic polymerization, are useful as plasticizers of other polymers, adhesives, and coatings. (The copolymerization of vinyl ethers with acrylates, vinyl acetate, maleic anhydride, and other monomers is achieved by radical polymerization but not the homopolymerizations of alkyl vinyl ethers.) 

Failure of condoms would clearly be of concern and a survey (165) appears to reveal a significant number of failures. Other workers (25) have characterised defects in condoms and investigated artificial defects. 

The failure of silicone rubber in breast implants has received plenty of coverage in the popular press and several technical articles have been reviewed by Lewis (71). It appears that there have been a number of failure mechanisms but they all generally relate to lack of thorough testing to cover the expected lifetime and all service conditions. For cases of failed tissue expanders he suggests the causes were a combination of poor design and poor manufacturing. 

Lewis also cites investigations of problems with synthetic heart valves and implanted pacemaker leads, including mechanical inadequacy, cure variations and biodegradation. Such medical products are subject to apparently exhaustive testing but despite the precautions taken failures have still occurred. 

It is essentially self evident that the study of failures is essential to successful design and the prevention of reoccurrence. It follows that it is important that accounts of failures are published so that the experience is of value to others. The practice is that relatively little has been published although there are indications that this situation is improving. 

Many of the case studies of failures demonstrate the frequency with which the failure could have been prevented if existing knowledge had been available to or had been heeded by the people concerned. This unavailability or disregard of knowledge is not restricted to small companies and even very prestigious establishments could be called guilty. 

The product is made in a similar way as para-chlopro-meto-cresol by reacting o-cresol with SO2CI2. 

P-chloro-o-cresol is the precursor for the pesticides MCPA (2-methyl-4-chloro-phenoxyacetic acid), MCPP (2-methyl-4-chloro-phenoxy propionic acid) and MCPB (2-methyl-4-chloro-phenoxy butyric acid). MCPP is also known as mecoprop. 

These phenoxy herbicides are very popular in W. Europe and Japan. Total Western European capacity for p-chloro-o-cresol exceeds 21-22,000 tpa. Major producers of PCOC include Coalite Chemicals, UK (9000 tpa) and Rhone-Poulenc (5000 tpa), UK, and BASF (7000 tpa) in Germany. These companies along with Bayer and Chemie Linz, which also produce PCOC in plants with flexible operations are the major producers of the chlorophenoxy carboxylic acid pesticides. 

In USA, the production of PCOC is virtually nil. Dow Chemical, the largest producer of the phenoxy herbicides, imports PCOC from W. Europe. 

Phenoxy pesticides are also very popular in Japan. However, production of PCOC does not exceed 100-150 tpa. Most of PCOC is imported from W. Europe. 

A hindered phenolic antioxidant that does not need an organotin catalyst is marketed by Great Lakes Chemical Corp. in its Anox 20 range. It is recommended for polyolefins, polystyrene, engineering plastics, elastomers and adhesives. 

Crompton has secured a number of additional stabiliser and antioxidant product lines through its recent deal with GE Specialty Chemicals, including Genox , Weston and Ultranox . Crompton s Naugard 900 antioxidant is claimed to be resistant to blooming. 

Sumitomo Chemical and some other companies have developed products that contain both phosphorus and phenolic groups in the same molecule. The idea is that a single additive will serve both the functions of a phenolic antioxidant (colour stability) and of a secondary antioxidant (resistance to odour generation and to hydrolysis). One of the first targets is low-density polyethylene film. 

Several companies now offer combinations of phenolic antioxidant with a phosphite in the same product. Cytec Industries markets a phenolic antioxidant combined with a hydrolysis-resistant phosphite, called Cyanox XS4. The components are both high molecular weight substances, so as to increase permanence and thermal stability. Cyanox XS4 was first targeted at polyolefins, where it was claimed to widen the processing window and reduce costs by allowing less stabiliser to be used, while still achieving minimal discoloration and melt flow. 

One constant concern of additive suppliers is how to help their customers achieve higher production speeds. Ciba Specialty Chemicals makes the ease of addition of Irgastab Cable KVIO, a liquid antioxidant stabiliser for high voltage cable insulation, one of its selling points. It is used in conjimction with a peroxide crosslinking agent, and is said to allow increased cable extrusion speeds because it minimises gel formation. 

These wines are similar to vermouth aperitif wines. They are flavored by different herbs and spices. Ginger-flavored wine is an exanqtle of this type of wine. 

Spirits or liquors are alcoholic beverages in which the high alcohol concentration is achieved by distillation of a fermented sugar-containing liquid. Examples are distilled wines (brandies), liqueurs, punch extracts and alcohol-containing mixed drinks. Table 20.27 compares the alcohol consumption with respect to spirits, wine and beer in selected countries. 

Other wine-like products include pahn and agave wines ( Pulque ), maple and tamarind (Indian date) wines, and sake, the Japanese alcoholic drink made from fermented rice, which resembles sherry and is enjoyed as a warm drink. 

The term liquor includes aU liquids, even pure alcohol, which are obtained by fermentation followed by distillation. Some types of liquors contain flavorings. 

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D-fructose, C HijOo. Crystallizes in large needles m.p. 102-104 C. The most eommon ketose sugar. Combined with glucose it occurs as sucrose and rafftnose mixed with glucose it is present in fruit juices, honey and other products inulin and levan are built of fructose residues only. In natural products it is always in the furanose form, but it crystallizes in the pyranose form. It is very soluble in... 

Colourless liquid. B.p. 286 C/100 mm., insoluble in water. Oleic acid occurs naturally in larger quantities than any other fatty acid, being present as glycerides in most fats and oils. It forms one third of the total fatty acids of cow s milk. A crude grade from inedible tallow is used in the production of lubricants, detergents, resins and other products. 

In this chapter, we will discuss petroleum products used for energy purposes, that is, motor fuels and heating fuels. Chapter 6 will be devoted to other products such as special gasolines, lubricants, petrochemical bases, and asphalts. 

Other products such as butadiene and styrene copolymers have been commercialized. 

Sodium hydroxide is manufactured by electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride the other product of the electrolysis, chlorine, is equally important and hence separation of anode and cathode products is necessary. This is achieved either by a diaphragm (for example in the Hooker electrolytic cell) or by using a mercury cathode which takes up the sodium formed at the cathode as an amalgam (the Kellner-Solvay ceW). The amalgam, after removal from the electrolyte cell, is treated with water to give sodium hydroxide and mercury. The mercury cell is more costly to operate but gives a purer product. 

Note that dinitrogen oxide is the other product. In alkaline solution, however, hydroxylamine oxidises iron(II) hydroxide to iron(III) hydroxide and is itself reduced to ammonia. This is an example of the effect of pH change on oxidation-reduction behaviour (p. 101). ... 

The advantage of the method, readily seen from the equation, is that the other products of the reaction are gaseous and escape. Hence equimolar quantities of reactants are used. 

Initially, the only means of obtaining elements higher than uranium was by a-particle bombardment of uranium in the cyclotron, and it was by this means that the first, exceedingly minute amounts of neptunium and plutonium were obtained. The separation of these elements from other products and from uranium was difficult methods were devised involving co-precipitation of the minute amounts of their salts on a larger amount of a precipitate with a similar crystal structure (the carrier ). The properties were studied, using quantities of the order of 10 g in volumes of... 

The original filtrate still contains the acetic acid which is the other product of the hydrolysis. Therefore place this filtrate (which must be... 

Phosphorus is also important in the production of steels, phosphor bronze, and many other products. Trisodium phosphate is important as a cleaning agent, as a water softener, and for preventing boiler scale and corrosion of pipes and boiler tubes. 

Zinc is also used extensively to galvanize other metals such as iron to prevent corrosion. Zinc oxide is a unique and very useful material for modern civilization. It is widely used in the manufacture of paints, rubber products, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, floor coverings, plastics, printing inks, soap, storage batteries, textiles, electrical equipment, and other products. Lithopone, a mixture of zinc sulfide and barium sulfate, is an important pigment. 

The reaction giving A is chloromethylation, a reliable metliod of adding a CH2OH equivalent to an aromatic ring. You may have been surprised at the use of reagent B to make an acid chloride. B is oxalyl chloride and is often used when pure acid chlorides are wanted - the other products are gases (which ). 

Added 100 grams denatured alcohol, no layer formed as the oily product is miscible in ethanol. Added 20 grams of C//-/2O. This pulled the ethanol and other product into the top layer, bottom layer containing some ethanol and safrole. Separated layers, placed the oily bottom layer into a 2-liter breaker. Took the temp right to 234 C. The ethanol and water came off <=100 C... The safrole started to boil 232C, then came to a full boll and maintained 234 C. Product ui/as yellow orange in color, suitable for whatever purpose one has in mind BTW, after the safrole cooled, she checked it with a 5% NaOH solution to see if any eugenol ivas left behind, no participate formed. 

The acetylenedicarboxylate 17 is a reactive compound and is carbonylated smoothly at room temperature to give the ethanetetracarboxylate 18 as the main product and ethene- and ethanetricarboxylates as minor products. Acetylenemonocarboxylate is converted into the ethanetricarboxylate 19 as the main product with several other products[l8]. 

The rt,/3-unsaturated linear carbonyl compound 39 is obtained by the decomposition of the cyclic hydroperoxide 38 with PdCl2,[35]. The a, 0-epoxy ketone 40 is isomerized to the /3-diketone 41 with Pd(0) catalyst[36]. The 1,4-epiperoxide 42 is converted into the /3-hydroxy ketone 43 and other products[37]. 

It has been recently found that upon irradiation isothiazoles can be converted to thiazole and isothiazole isomers among other products (Scheme 153). 

One type of polymerization reaction is the addition reaction in which successive repeat units add on to the chain. No other product molecules are formed, so the weight of the monomer and that of the repeat unit are identical in this case. A second category of polymerization reaction is the condensation reaction, in which one or two small molecules like water or HCl are eliminated for each chain linkage formed. In this case the molecular weight of the monomer and the... 

Urea processes provide an aqueous solution containing 70—87% urea. This solution can be used directiy for nitrogen-fertilizer suspensions or solutions such as urea—ammonium nitrate solution, which has grown ia popularity recentiy (18). Urea solution can be concentrated by evaporation or crystallization for the preparation of granular compound fertilizers and other products. Concentrated urea is sohdified ia essentially pure form as prills, granules, flakes, or crystals. SoHd urea can be shipped, stored, distributed, and used mote economically than ia solution. Furthermore, ia the soHd form, urea is more stable and biuret formation less likely. 

Wines may be imported for reasons at either of two extremes because they are relatively inexpensive, or because they are in high demand, and thus command a higher price. Those exported from the United States tend to be the former, and those imported, the latter, based on the data shown in Table 5. There is some market, even in countries that are overproducing wine, for wines with exotic labels. This tendency illustrates another way in which wines differ from other products. Information on and cuisine from foreign countries associated with their wines serve as the vehicles for a form of a cultural exchange, besides the stricdy commercial one. 

Blending to increase the alcohol (or other component) or to impart a special character to other wines or even other products, eg, whiskey... 

After cleavage the reaction mass is a mixture of phenol, acetone, and a variety of other products such as cumylphenols, acetophenone, dimethyl-phenylcarbinol, a-methylstyrene, and hydroxyacetone. It may be neutralised with a sodium phenoxide solution (20) or other suitable base or ion-exchange resins. Process water may be added to facilitate removal of any inorganic salts. The product may then go through a separation and a wash stage, or go direcdy to a distillation tower. 

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