Aspects, general

In general, chlorinated solvents are commonly used for processing in laboratories, which have restricted application in industrial operation due to safety risks and 

General Aspects. Whereas in unsubstituted isotwistanes (G 2) with X(2) 

For the most general approach to construct supramolecular dye assemblies through metal coordination, dye molecules must possess appropriate Lewis basic coordination sites, which are, however, usually scarce in parent dye molecules. Therefore, aromatic aza ligands, especially pyridyl, bipyridyl and terpyridyl groups, are often introduced into dye molecides by established organic synthetic routes to enable metal-aza Hgand interactions for the construction of dye assemblies of diverse structures and properties. Surprisingly, few classes of dyes have been subjected so far to produce supramolecular 

Contrary to the general belief of some scientists and engineers, all gas-cleaning systans are not alike, and having a good understanding of the type of gaseous effluents from coal-based processes is necessary to implement the appropriate solution. 

The design of a gas-cleaning system must always take into account the operation of the upstream installations since every process will have a specific set of requirements. In some cases, the application of a dry-dnsting removal unit may not be possible and thus requires a special process design of the wet gas-cleaning plant. 

the gas-cleaning process must always be of optimal design for both the upstream and downstream processes. 

The average (a most inaccurate term to say the least since it bears very little relationship to the chemistry of the combustion of the different sulfur forms) sulfur content of coal burned to generate electricity is generally assumed to be on the order of 2.5% wt/wt. Many coals have a much higher sulfur content (Chapters 8 and 9 Berkowitz, 1979 Hessley et al., 1986 Hessley, 1990) and, because of a variety of geographical, economic, as well as political issues, such coals are (or have to be) used for power generation. 

Organic snlfnr comprises 50%-60% of the total snlfur present in coal it is an integral part of the coal strnctnre and cannot be removed by mechanical means (Chapter 6). Pyritic sulfur accounts for most of the remaining sulfur in coal. Gravity separation techniques can readily remove pyritic snlfur from coal if the pyrite particles in the coal are fairly large. The coal industry has used these techniques for many years. Many American coals permit the removal of about half of the pyritic sulfur in this way. The pyrite in some coals, however, is too fine to permit separation by these methods. 

4 SCALAR SPIN-SPIN COUPLING 2.4.1 General Aspects 

a number of one- and two-dimensional NMR experiments are available for the detection of homonuclear Li, Li and Li, Li couplings. Aside from the COSY experiment, the double quantum filtered COSY (COSY-DQF), the TOCSY, and the ID and 2D INADEQUATE experiments [24] have been successfully employed. An attractive feature of all these experiments is their sensitivity for small scalar interactions which give rise to crosspeaks even if line splittings in the corresponding ID spectra are not resolved. This was first demonstrated with COSY experiments for a paramagnetic nickel complex [82] and for quadrupolar nuclei in the case of boron-11 [83]. 

In the present context, the COSY experiment is best performed with a pulse sequence (i), which enhances small coupling and reduces diagonal signals [84]. 

The latter applies also to the COSY-DQF experiment. Experimentally, modem software allows COSY spectra to be recorded in the phase sensitive 

TTie TOCSY sequence (ii) [85], supplemented with trim pulses and z-filter [24], 

Lewis Acid Catalyzed Rearrangements 1. General Aspects 

The most useful and general approach for the preparation of diamonoid molecules arises from Lewis acid catalyzed rearrangements of polycyclic hydrocarbons. The ubiquitiy of these rearrangements coupled with the availability of several highly selective direct substition reactions which may be subsequently applied to the rearranged hydrocarbons (see Section V.A. 1,2), makes a wide variety of diamonoid substrates readily available. The need for direct, multistep syntheses arises only when special substitution patterns not available via the substitution approach are required (see Section V.A. 3). 

This second factor is responsible for the extreme generality with which polycyclic hydrocarbons rearrange to diamonoid compounds. Thus, although all early examples of such rearrangements involved fairly strained starting materials4 12) (eg. Eq. (1—3) cf Ref.4 121), Schneider and coworkers 13-15  

As would be expected, the rearrangements of these perhydroaromatics are considerably slower than those of the more strained alkyl-substituted adamantane precursors 15K In general, the success of these rearrangements 

In addition to the prolonged lifetime of the complex catalysts, such enhanced yields are also made possible by improved catalyst-hydrocarbon contact. Aluminium chloride is insoluble in hydrocarbons catalysis occurs in this case by surface contact with the solid. While the complex catalysts are also insoluble in hydrocarbons, they are liquids the ease of mixing is therefore greatly facilitated. 

The stea(ty advances reported in the 1991 literature show how well the subject connects basic aspects of organic chemistiy with medical and biological science. Knowledge of the chemistiy of glyco l cations, anions, free radicals euid carbenes has been taken forward on the one hand, and many syntheses have been reported that have been initiated by the needs of biologists, and biological (especially enzymic) methods as tools in synthetic carbohydrate chemistry have become overtly more accessible and useful. 

Oligosaccharide syntheses and structural/conformational analyses by spectroscopic and theoretical methods have advanced appreciably and in line with the continuing increase in the recognition of these compounds as key elements of certain biological processes. 

An appreciation of the life and work of the great Japanese medicinal chemist Hamao Umezawa has appeared.  

Special interest will be taken in the topic of association of resorcinol-aldeltyde cyclotetramers and sugars in aqueous or non-aqueous media which has been reviewed (in Japanese).  

In the area of synthesis, reviews have covered the use of carbohydrate in industrial chemical manufacture, the synthesis of long-chain sugars and branched compounds from 

The synthesis of lipids in yeasts has recently been reviewed with particular emphasis on commercial aspects, that is production of triacyl- 

From the work of Kock and his associates, together with the data compiled by Rattray (1988), the following very general conclusions can be advanced regarding the occurrence of fatty acids in yeasts. 

Palmitic acid (16 0) is usually between 15 and 20% of the total fatty acids and is possibly highest in Lipomyces spp where proportions of over 30%, and one case of over 60%, have been noted. 

Palmitoleic acid (16 1) is usually only a minor constituent ( 5%) of most yeast lipids but in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, content can be 43-54% although in species of Hanseniaspora levels of up to 67% of the total fatty adds have been found (Tredoux et al., 1987a). 

Stearic acid (18 0) is usually only a minor constituent and rarely exceeds 10% of the total fatty acids values are often less than 5%. However, there are a few exceptions (see below). 

The thermodynamics of formation and transformation of a solid phase into another are characterized by two aspects, both of them explaining the difficulty to produce solids of homogeneous composition. The more important of these is nucleation The other is the tendency of certain components of the solid to diffuse to, or away from, surfaces. These aspects, however, cannot be considered in isolation. Chemical reactions involve the breaking of bonds and formation of new ones. This involves kinetically limited processes. In many cases, diffusion brings about additional kinetic limitations. The final result is the combination of the effects of all these processes. 

Nuclcation in solid-state reactions essentially obeys laws similar to those ruling the formation of solids from liquid or gases. The only difference is the enhanced role of diffusion limitations. The simpler case of nuclcation from liquids will be sufficient for explaining the prob- 

First observed was the general aspect of the sample, looking at the whole grid. Then, different points were analyzed (2-3) of various particles (from 10 to 25). The diameter of the static spot was 0.2 /xm. The duration of each microanalysis (accumulation) varied between 60 and 240 s [13). 

When such strategies are used to produce approximately homogeneous solids, the other phenomenon mentioned above can occur, namely heterogeneous precipitation of one compound on the surface of the already formed precipitate of another phase. This is shown in Fig. 3, for the precipitation of compound B after A has already precipitated. This has given rise to severe misinterpretations of physico-chemical characterization of precipitated solids, especially when surface-sensitive techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used. 

The previous part of this section makes clear that, unless a method is found to directly prepare a catalytic phase (usually an oxide) containing all the wanted metallic elements, and in the required proportions, some more indirect method should be selected. In general, however, direct preparation from the gas or liquid phase will be impossible for the reasons given above. It becomes necessary to resort to a two-step or multiple-step approach using at least one solid precursor. 

El Khadem has published a book Carbohydrate Chemistry Monosaccharides and their Oligomers ,and reviews of general interest have appeared on.the chemistry and biochemistry of the sweetness of sugars and on the use of immobilised enzymes in preparative carbohydrate chemistry.  

Volume 45 of Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry (1987) contains articles on circular dichroism n.m.r. (proton relaxation rate data in structural analysis) and mass spectrometry (FAB methodology). The volume also contains tributes to the lives and work of Professors B. Helferich and F. 

The succeeding volume of the series contains reviews on H.p.l.c. of carbohydrates, n.m.r. of fluorinated monosaccharides, the use of photosensitive protecting groups in carbohydrate synthesis and high-temperature transformations of monosaccharides in aqueous solution.  

Appreciations of the lives and work of Professor K. Onedera and V. Deulofeu are also included in this volume. 

El Khadem. Carbohydrate Chemistry.Monosaccharides thrir 011t omers Academic San Diego, Calif., 1988. 256 pp. 

As already emphasized two step redox systems should exist with all compounds which can be derived from the general stmctures, B and C (cf. L). These are isoelectronic and differ by their charges only. 

So far comparisons of isoelectronic systems of types A, B and C are restricted to few examples, becau especially in type B the kinetic instability of the neutral radicals (SEM) becomes so pronounced that the level RED very often caimot be generated. This low persistency of B may be due to the fact that the odd electron is no longer distributed symmetrically over the molecule. In some cases dimeric products have been identified There are, however, tailor made radicals Rsem. -g-55, which exist as highly coloured, destillable compounds Nonetheless, from the 

2 Comj uison of Cationic and Anionic I w-diectrimic Redox Systems  

By comparison of about thirty pairs of isoelectronic redox systems, namely bis-quaternary salts (potentials E and E2 (e.g. 56A) and the corresponding free bases (potentials Ef and E (e.g. 56C)) a general relationship between their redox properties has been discovered. It turns out that potentials E and E as well as E and E are related to the distance between the nitrogen atoms by the linear Eq. (6) 

3 Vinylogous Redox Systems Containing Non-quatemized Heterocycles 

The concerted mechanism, in which the two new bonds form synchronously (Fig. 7), is probably less common than generally assumed. A concerted non-synchronous mechanism can involve diradicals or zwitterions, which means more or less dissymmetry, geometrical and/or electronic, in the bond formation, which can be increased by the presence of catalysts, such as Lewis acids, especially lithium salts,26 or solvent effects.27 Ionization of one of the reactants (Fig. 8), frequently the dienophile, is efficient in promoting cycloadditions with unreactive reagents, e.g., the [4+2] dimerization of dienes, by a selective transformation to the reactive radical cations ( hole catalysis).  

It is surprising to see the apparent parsimonious interest of sonochemists in the Diels-Alder addition. This reaction with a large negative activation volume is frequently carried out in heated sealed tubes. Then, from the sonochemist s viewpoint, the high pressures and temperatures produced by the cavitational collapses should activate the reaction, provided the reactants are able to penetrate into the bubble. Non-volatile reagents should not be activated since the pressures and temperatures decrease sharply outside the bubble. Thus, the hot-spot theory predicts that the sonochemical Diels-Alder reactivity should more or less be related to the volatility of the partners. 

If the electrical theories are considered, the high electric fields should ionize one of the reagents, with results comparable to those of radical ion reactions. In this case, the sensitivity of a given system should correspond to the ability of one of the reactants to become ionized. Then, in both situations, whether thermal or electrical effects predominate, the Diels-Alder reaction should respond to sonochemical activation. 

7 Inorganic Self Assembly Processes Zeolite Synthesis 8.7.1 General Aspects 

In zeolite synthesis, sUicate and alummate ions are reacted with base under hydrothermal conditions. Basic components such as inorganic alkali or alkaline earth metal cations can also be used in the synthesis, in addition to organic cations. The organic cations can act as a structme-directing template. 

The Al/Si ratio of the zeofite framework and the structure of zeolite are quite sensitive 

The zeolite synthesis solution provides a multitude of small oligomeric molecules that can display very different interactions with a selected template molecule. A specific complex with template molecule will have unique stability. Because of the equilibria between the oligomeric units, crystallization will consume all molecules from the mother liquid to form this particular complex through the recombination of particular oligomers formed. 

Hence zeolite synthesis shares some of the same combinatorial self organization and self learning aspects as seen in the antibody system. During zeolite crystallization template molecules are incorporated in unique positions. Molecular mechanics techniques have been developed ] that allow the prediction of optimum template zeohte interaction useful to select template molecules to synthesize preselected zeohte structmes. 

A description of the pioneering work of Emil Fischer in the period around 1890, especially relating to his elucidation of the molecular configuration of glucose and aspects of his philosophical view of chemistry, has appeared. Lemieux and Spohr have looked in detail at how Fischer was led to the lock and key concept for enzyme specificity. An animated 386-based PC program with VGA graphics has been produced to assist visualization of the relationship between Fischer and Haworth projections of monosaccharides.  

Fachgruppe Gesch. Chan., 1991,6,44(Chan. Abstr., 1994,120,53 827). 

ACS Symp. Ser., 1993, 539, Issue on Anomeric Effect and Associated Stereoelectionic Effects. 

Edward, ACS Symp. Set., 1993,539, (Anomeric Effect and Associated Stereoelectronic Effects) 1 (Chem. Abstr., 1994.120, 107 483). 

Biomimetics is a distinct and rapidly growing discipline that provides insight into the secrets of how Nature s biological pathways work, how they are manifest in diverse aspects of chemistry, physics and engineering, and in which way they can be emulated to provide materials and objects useful for biomedical applications. According to the Oxford Dictionary, the term biomimetics means relating to or denoting synthetic methods which mimic biochemical processes . 

Previously studied possibilities for bromine storage systems are listed in Table 1. The widely known reduction of the Br, vapor pressure by formation of adducts with various carbon materials results from strong chemisorption interactions and has Table 1. General possibilities for bromine storage 

Storage in inorganic solid matrix Intercalation into graphite [6,7] Carbon-bromine adduct [4] In zeolites [81 

Polymetric matrix Polydiallyidimethylammonium bromide [9 Polypyrrole [ 10] Poly (A/,A/-dimethyl)-3,4-pyrrolidinium bromide [11] Styrene-divinyl benzene copolymers [4] Polyacrylamide [12] 

Charge-transfer complexes Dioxane, pyridine, polyvinyl, pyrrolid one, poly-2-vinvyl pyridine, polyethyleneoxide [4] 

Further organic storing materials Phenyl bromide [14], pyridine, 1-picoline, 2,6-lutidine [15-17] Arsonium salts [18, 19] Phosphonium salts [20] Pyridinium bromides [21] Aromatic amines [22] Urotropin-bromine adduct [23] Pyridinium and sulfonium salts [24] Propionitril [25] 

This chapter deals with the preparation of multimetallic nanoparticles based on the results of the chemistry of redox processes appUed in catalysis and catalyst preparation [1-4]. First, the general aspects of this technique will be briefly described the second part will be devoted to the practical aspects of this preparation method and then some applications of the resulting catalysts in the synthesis of organic chemicals, in environmental catalysis and in catalysis for energy will be presented. 

Whatever the technique used, the first step always consists of the preparation of a monometallic catalyst, which is generally activated by calcination and reduction. Then, the monometallic catalyst is introduced into the preparation reactor, reduced and the liquid phase is added to obtain a suspension of the catalyst. The metal constituting the monometallic catalyst is denoted as parent metal The last step of the preparation procedure consists of the introduction of the modifier in solution in the form of a precursor salt at ambient temperature. The different 

Copyright 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, Weinheim 

We will not attempt to cover the specific mechanisms and complex biochemistry of calcification in different organisms, which have been reviewed in numerous articles (e.g., Degens, 1976 Watabe, 1981 Chave, 1984 Lowenstam and Weiner, 1989). Instead we will concentrate on observations of how biogenic carbonates reflect environmental conditions. These observations can be divided into the major areas of mineralogy, stable isotope ratios, and trace component concentration. The stable isotope and trace component chemistries have received substantially more attention during the last 25 years than has mineralogy. Inorganic phases are also discussed in this section as a means of comparison with skeletal materials. 

The catalysts used for isomerization of Cg aromatics contain an acidic function to perform xylene isomerization and naphthene isomerization for EB conversion to xylenes. Relatively high metal activity is needed to maintain the naphthene/ aromatic equilibrium that allows isomerization of EB. For conversion of EB by dealkylation, an acidic function is required along with metal activity capable of capturing and hydrogenating the ethylene by-product before it can re-alkylate another aromatic ring. 

Full catalyst formulations consist of zeolite, metal and a binder, which provides a matrix to contain the metal and zeolite, as well as allowing the composite to be shaped and have strength for handling. The catalyst particle shape, size and porosity can impact the diffusion properties. These can be important in facile reactions such as xylene isomerization, where diffusion of reactants and products may become rate-limiting. The binder properties and chemistry are also key features, as the binder may supply sites for metal clusters and affect coke formation during the process. The binders often used for these catalysts include alumina, silica and mixtures of other refractory oxides. 

Catalyst stability with time on stream is an important characteristic. Acidic catalysts can be deactivated by basic poisons such as nitrogen. Carbonaceous species can build up on both metal and acid sites. These are the two prevalent mechanisms for catalyst deactivation. Other ways that a catalyst can be damaged, such as a temperature excursion, may be more likely to occur during the initial start up or during coke burning regenerations. Regeneration is discussed in the next section. 

Coke formation during xylene isomerization has been studied using in situ infrared spectroscopy [78]. A study done on EB isomerization with a bifunctional catalyst containing EUO zeolite indicated that poor initial selectivity of the catalyst improves after a period of fast deactivation, during which micropores are blocked [79]. 

Hantzsch and Weber began their description with the compound which led them indirectly to the discovery of the thiazoles the a-thiocyanoacetone imine ( Rhodanpropimin ) of J. Tcherniac and C. H. Norton. C4H6N2S. obtained by reaction of ammonium thiocyanate with chloroacetone. After Tcherniac and Norton (18), the a thiocyanoacetone 

Mellon (19) but using anhydrous reagents. He obtained an oil that reacted exothermically with hydroxylamine (oxime of m.p. 135°) and that isomerized to 2-oxy-4-methylthiazole (14) upon heating with diluted hydrochloric acid. The thiazolic nature of oxymethylthiazole was clearly demonstrated by its reduction by zinc powder distillation into 4-methylthiazole (23), the first free thiazole ever described. 

The controversy seemed then to be closed. In 1890 Hantzsch had already started his work on the structure of oximes, and his synthetic work on heterocycles was practically ended. However, 27 years later, in July 1919, Tcherniac published a new paper entitled TTiiocyanoacetone and its derivatives as isomerides (33), where, after the description of improved and generalized methods for the preparation of thiocyanoacetone he came to the explosive conclusion that the substance which has been known since 1887 as hydroxymethylthiazole is not a thiazole at all. It might be called 2-imino-4-methylthioxole, but for the sake of simplicity, and in view of the now proved existence of two other isomerides of thiocyanoacetone, it seems preferable to adopt the generic 

He then concluded that the NCH3 group occupied the 2-position, bringing him to the formula (27) for hydroxymethylthiazole, the formation of which could easily be derived by the following scheme from thio-cyanoacetone. 

Among the thiazole derivatives known for a long time, but whose structure was not at once acknowledged as such, leading to some controversies, are so-called thiocyanoacetic acid, thiohydantoine, rhodanine, mercaptothiazole, and sulfuvinuric acid. 

Regarding the toxicity of some metal ions, it is well known that mercury, lead and cadmium are toxic to organisms, and early detection in the environment is 

In chemical oceanography, it has been demonstrated that some nutrients required for the survival of microorganisms in seawater contain zinc, iron and manganese as enzyme cofactors. 

Cation Ionic diameter Charge density Coordination number 

Attention should be paid to the possible existence of several complexes having different stoichiometries. A necessary preliminary experiment consists of recording the fluorescence and/or excitation spectra under experimental conditions (nature of the solvent, composition of the medium, ionic strength, pH (if it has an effect on the stability constant), etc.) as close as possible to the medium in which a cation must be detected. The variations in the fluorescence intensity for an appropriate couple of excitation and emission wavelengths (or for several emission or excitation wavelengths) as a function of cation concentration must be analyzed in order to determine the stoichiometry and the stability constant of the complexes (Appendix B). As in the case of pH determination (see Section 10.2.1), ratiometric measurements are recommended. 

The fluorescent molecular sensors will be presented with a classification according to the nature of the photoinduced process (mainly photoinduced electron or charge transfer, and excimer formation) that is responsible for photophysical changes upon cation binding. Such a classification should help the reader to understand the various effects of cation binding on the fluorescence characteristics reported in many papers. In most of these papers, little attention is often paid to the origin of cation-induced photophysical changes. 

As mentioned above, the hazard assessment process comprises two steps hazard identification and hazard characterization. 

The purpose of the hazard identification is to evaluate the weight of evidence of adverse effects in humans based on assessment of all available data on toxicity and toxicological mode(s) 

The concept of thresholds in toxicology and risk assessment has been discussed in an article by Slob (1999). According to Slob, a dose-threshold may be defined in different ways  

According to the OECD/IPCS definitions listed in Annex 1 (OECD 2003a)  

Threshold is Dose or exposure concentration of a substance below that a stated effect is not observed or expected to occur.  

In the termination step [eq. (13), p. 12] of type II photooxygenation reactions, singlet oxygen reacts with a suitable substrate to an oxygenation product, which may be stable or unstable. In the latter case, after-reactions such as rearrangements, decompositions, or reactions with the solvents can occur, which sometimes may obscure the mechanism of the termination step. 

As long as the substrates do not act as quenchers of the excited singlet or triplet light absorbers, the quantum yields of product formation are given by eq. (14), which may be written as 

Comparison of / values obtained for various substrates under similar conditions gives some information on the relative reactivities of these substrates toward singlet oxygen (to which weshallfurther refer only as oxygen ), since ka remains unchanged and the fi values, therefore, reflect only the change of kg as a function of the nature of the substrate. 

Activation energies, measured so far for only some substrates, range from zero to about 5 kcal/mole depending on whether the substrate is a conjugated diene (0 to 1 kcal/mole) or a low-substituted olefin ( 5 kcal/mole) (see Table IV, p. 23). 

An additional limitation of NMR spectroscopy is the long observation time. Depending on the technique applied, observation times of ca. 100 ms to some hours may be needed. Hence, only structures that are stable during the observation time 

Unlike other spectroscopic methods requiring samples under vacuum or very low gas pressures, NMR spectroscopy of working catalysts is not limited by the so-called pressure gap. The flow techniques described in Section III.B are suitable for catalytic reaction experiments under atmospheric pressure. If necessary, a higher pressure inside the MAS NMR rotor reactor can be used. The gas pressure inside batch samples may be limited by the strength of the walls of the glass inserts or the type of the cap used to seal the MAS NMR rotor after the preparation of the reaction system. In both cases, at least atmospheric pressure can be reached inside the sample volume. 

A significant advantage of the methodology of NMR spectroscopy is that it allows application of pulse sequences for the discrimination of nuclei in specific local structures, if these nuclei are characterized by a coupling with other nuclei. Examples are dipolar-dephasing techniques such as those used in TRAPDOR experiments (Section II.C). CP experiments can be applied for the discrimination of nuclei in various structures, for example, for the identification and investigation of strongly adsorbed species with low mobility. 

It is important to note the quantitative character of NMR spectroscopy. By use of an internal or external intensity standard, a spin counting via the comparison of the signal intensities can be performed. In the case of an external intensity standard, the same spectroscopic parameters must be used, and the effect of Curie s law (Eq. (25)) in experiments at elevated temperatures has to be taken into account. 

Extenders (fillers) are substances in powder form that are practically insoluble in the medium in which they are applied. They are usually white or slightly colored, and are used on account of their physical or chemical properties. The distinction between an extender and a pigment lies in the purpose for which it is used. An extender is not a colorant, it is employed to modify the properties or increase the bulk (volume) of a given material. Extenders are beyond the scope of this book and will not be discussed in detail. 

Colored pigments White pigments - . H Coloration of building materials 

Dusting value MiMlrtaiipWMM . u iTJ Alkyd resin and alkyl-melamine system  

Lead chromate/phthalocyanine blue pigments Methodsofi Specification 

Scattering power, relative Black ground method 

The very first experiments in extension of polymers in the viscous flow state n 12,15) demonstrated that ct/x const, as it is the case in Newtonian media. The relationship a/ep = 3n, true in the linear area under arbitrary conditions of tensile strain1314 , does not hold true in the area of significant elastic deformations 11,12 . 

Later experimental research into extension was focused on detailed studies of the behavior of the medium s effective viscosity and the search for new effects under different conditions of extension. 

Prior to a detailed discussion of the obtained experimental data we briefly list the major events — from our point of view — in chronological order. 

Rallman RL 16). Viscosity under stationary tension approaches the constant, while under shear at the same strain velocities it decreases rather intensively unfortunately the experiment in extension was carried out within a limited range of strain velocities. 

Radushkevitch BV, Fichman VD, Vinogradov GV19,20). Stationary flow was attained under conditions of x = const. Viscosity was increasing under stationary flow while the time during which the stationary flow was attained was reducing with increase in / . unfortunately the experiment was carried out rather roughly and the authors failed to obtain clear dependencies of ct/x upon t17) therefrom. 

Because the kinetic energies of photoelectrons depend on the photon energy, equ. (1.29a), but the kinetic energies of Auger electrons are independent of the photon energy, equ. (1.29b), the processes can be easily distinguished in an experimental spectrum of ejected electrons if the kinetic energies are observed at 

Sgfla W///A / ///, w — oy- or op—- Auger lines from discrete photosat. spectator partic. ol  

VAy/s/// -fl— —OOCM-- Auger lines from cont. photosatellites Lt ill m (e) 

The result of all the individual processes is the total Auger spectrum shown at the bottom of Fig. 3.2. It can be seen that even for such a simple case as Is photoionization in neon the resulting Auger spectrum is very complicated, and about 90 lines have been analysed [KCM71, ATW90]. In this work the following classifications are made  

In this section only the normal K-LL Auger transitions will be considered further. 

Optimal functioning of reactive absorption processes depends primarily on relevant process design, properly selected column internals as well as sufficient understanding of the process behavior. To describe such phenomena adequately, specially developed mathematical models capable of simultaneously taking into consideration column hydrodynamics, mass transfer resistances and reaction kinetics are required [14], 

Reactive absorption processes present essentially a combination of transport phenomena and reactions taking place in a two-phase system with an interface. Because of their multicomponent nature, reactive absorption processes are affected by a complex thermodynamic and diffusional coupling which, in turn, is accompanied by simultaneous chemical reactions [14—16], Generally, the reaction has to be considered both in the bulk and in the film region. Modeling of hydrodynamics in gas-liquid contactors includes an appropriate description of axial dispersion, liquid hold-up and pressure drop. 

In order to model large industrial reactive separation units, a proper sub-division of a column apparatus into smaller elements is usually necessary. These elements (the so-called stages) are identified with real trays or segments of a packed column. They can be described using different theoretical concepts, with a wide range of physico-chemical assumptions and accuracy (Fig. 9.3). 

Catalytic hydrogenation of nitriles has long been used for the preparation of various amines. It is performed over metallic catalysts mostly in the liquid phase. The method is also of industrial importance and has been applied to the commercial production of various amines, for example, various aliphatic amines from fatty acid nitriles, hexa-methylenediamine (1,6-hexanediamine) from adiponitrile, and xylene-a,a -diamines [bis(aminomethyl)benzenes] from the corresponding phthalonitriles. 

Hydrogenation of nitriles to primary amines (eq. 7.1) is usually accompanied by the formation of secondary amines (eq. 7.2) and even tertiary amines (eq. 7.3). The selectivity to respective amines depends on the structure of substrate, the nature and amount of catalyst, basic and acidic additives, the reaction medium, and other reaction conditions. Among these factors the nature of catalyst appears to be the most important for determining the selectivity. 

The formation of secondary amines probably results from a series of reactions shown in eqs. 7.4-7.6, as originally proposed by von Braun et al. in 1923.1 The reactions involve the addition of the primary amine produced to the intermediate aldimine 1 to form an a-aminodialkylamine 2 and the Schiff base 3, which is formed from 2 by loss of ammonia. 

The formation of tertiary amines is also explained by the analogous reactions shown in eqs. 7.7 and 7.8. In this case, however, elimination of ammonia from the addition product 4 to form an azomethine type compound is not possible, but tertiary amines may be formed either by direct hydrogenolysis of 4 or through the formation of an enamine 5 followed by hydrogenation. 

If the hydrogenation is carried out in an alcohol as solvent, a mixed secondary amine may be formed at high temperature by the reaction of primary amine with the alcohol (eq. 7.10).6 Over Ni-kieselguhr the reactions shown in eqs. 7.9 and 7.10 become significant at temperatures above 160-170°C.4 

While simple empirical potentials can produce many promising structures, the precise values of e.g. their cell parameters or the exact locations of the atoms in the cell are not to be expected. Such details would require to perform another optimisation round for e.g. fixed composition, etc., using a more realistic potential. Preferably, one would want to employ either highly refined (semi)empirical potentials28 32 or some ab-initio method33 35. 14 

Clearly, the most important parameters of this optimisation procedure are the temperatime program, i.e., the rule according to which C is decreased to zero, and the moveclass. While a considerable effort has been devoted to the development of efficient general temperature programs40, 42 46, the choice of a good moveclass still remains an open question, since it is highly problem dependent. 

As far as the temperature program is concerned, reasonable results have been achieved using T = Tof (n = 0...nmax), with m MC-steps between temperature updates. Here, To, f, nmax and m should be chosen according to the size of the system, the moveclass and the objective of the current optimisation run. The latter refers to the fact that different strategies have to be chosen, if one wants to find as deep a minimum as possible for a given amount of computer time or whether one tries to gain a general overview over the statistical distribution of local minima and their accessibility 16.  

Electron transfer in biological systems can be thought of as a two-step process involving formation of a complex between the donor and acceptor molecule followed by an electron transfer event. The overall electron transfer rate will depend on the rate of complex formation and stability of the complex and on the intrinsic electron transfer rate within the complex. Since the flavin electron transfer systems discussed in this chapter are all stable inter- or intramolecular complexes, the discussion will be limited to considerations of a first order intra-complex electron transfer process. 

The rate of electron transfer between the donor and the acceptor redox center within the complex will depend on three main variables according to equation 1 (Marcus and Sutton, 1985). 

In this equation, k is Plankis constant, k, is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature. The three variables are AG, the difference in free energy between the donor and acceptor redox center, X, the reorganization energy and Hda, the electronic coupling between the donor, d, and the acceptor, a. AG is the driving force for the electron transfer reaction and can be calculated from the difference in midpoint redox potentials 

The measured electron transfer rates and redox potential differences for the complexes discussed in this chapter, where clearly established, are summarized in Table 2. The flavin electron transfer rates for CPR and for fumarate reductase are not well established or are not known and the thermodynamic driving force is not known for PCMH. 

The electronic coupling has been calculated for each of the flavin electron transfer complexes described in this chapter and is described below, with the exceptions of CPR, TMADH and PDR. For these three proteins, the two redox cofactors are in direct van der Waals contact, either between the C-7 and C-8 methyl groups of two flavins (CPR), or between the flavin C-8 methyl and a cysteinyl sulfur ligand to the iron-sulfur center (TMADH and PDR). In these cases the coupling between the redox centers should be maximal and the electron transfer rates should depend only on the driving foree and reorganization energy for the electron transfer proeesses. 

Because of the high dissociation energy the direct formation of oxides is endergo-nisch [98]. They are thermodynamically unstable compared to N2 and 02, which explains why the oxidation route for nitrogen fixation was not competitive. 

The only reactions of molecular nitrogen at ambient temperature are the formation of lithium nitride Li3N, reactions with certain transition metal complexes, and nitrogen fixation with nitrogenase in the bacteria of the root nodules of legumes and in blue algae (Sections 14.1.1 and 14.1.2). Above 500 °C nitrogen reacts with some elements, especially with metals (nitride formation). 

At pressures above 200 MPa (2000 bar), the synthesis of ammonia proceeds even in the absence of specific catalysts. At such extreme pressures the vessel walls appear to catalyze the formation of ammonia. 

In the homogeneous phase under thermodynamically favorable temperature conditions, the formation of ammonia may be forced by employing other forms of energy, such as electrical energy or ionizing radiation. The principal difficulty with these so-called plasma processes, which also impedes their economic use, is that the energy supplied is useful only in part for ammonia formation. A greater part is transformed in primary collision and exothermic secondary processes into undesirable heat or unusable incidental radiation. 

In the catalytic combination of nitrogen and hydrogen, the molecules lose their translational degrees of freedom by fixation on the catalyst surface. This drastically reduces the required energy of activation, for example, to 103 kj/mol on iron [100], The reaction may then proceed in the temperature range 250-400 °C. In 1972, it was discovered that electron donor - acceptor (EDA) complexes permit making ammonia with measurable reaction rate at room temperature. 

Because energies of the order of 1 eV to 1 MeV are transmitted to the atoms by nuclear reactions, corresponding to temperature equivalents of the order of 10 to 10 ° K, these atoms are called hot atoms and their chemistry is called hot atom chemistry , or recoil chemistry if the recoil effects are considered. 

Chemical effects of nuclear reactions were first observed by Szilard and Chalmers in 1934 when irradiating ethyl iodide with neutrons. They found several chemical species containing 1 that are produced by the chemical effects of the nuclear reaction l(n, y) 2 1. In the following years, chemical effects of radioactive decay were observed in gaseous compounds, liquids and solids. 

The chemical effects of mononuclear and binuclear reactions can be divided into primary effects taking place in the atom involved in the nuclear reaction, secondary effects in the molecules or other associations of atoms, and subsequent reactions. Primary and secondary effects are observed within about 10 s after the nuclear reaction. 

Primary effects comprise recoil of the nucleus and excitation of the electron shell of the atom. The excitation may be due to recoil of the nucleus, change of atomic number Z or emission of electrons from the electron shell. Secondary effects and subsequent reactions depend on the chemical bonds and the state of matter. Chemical bonds may be broken by recoil or excitation. In gases and liquids mainly the bonds in the molecules are affected. The range of recoil atoms is relatively large in gases and relatively small in condensed phases (liquids and solids). Fragments of molecules are mobile in gases and liquids, whereas they may be immobilized in solids on interstitial sites or lattice defects and become mobile if the temperature is increased. 

The chemical reactions taking place after nuclear reactions may be distinguished as hot , epithermal and thermal reaetions. Hot reactions proceed at high ener- 

The reduction of CO2 to CH4 is an exergonic process that is coupled with the synthesis of ATP as evidenced by growth of methanogens on CO2 and H2 as sole energy and carbon sources  

TABLE 1. pK values (approximate) for some weak carbon acids 

An alternative approach to pK determination for very weak hydrocarbon acids is the electrochemical method of Breslow . This method is thermodynamic in origin employing voltammetric reduction/oxidation of the cation (or anion) to radical thence to anion (or cation) and comparing the energetics of these steps to the triphenylmethyl system (including bond dissociation energies of the respective hydrocarbons). Values of p aS obtained for some weak carbon acids by this method are given in Table 1 for comparison with the Streitwieser results. 

Polymer chemistry is an important branch of science, and polymer analysis and characterization is a common subject in scientific literature. Analytical pyrolysis is one of many tools used particularly for polymer identification and for the evaluation of polymer thermal properties. Before a more in-depth discussion on analytical pyrolysis and its application to polymer science, some basic concepts regarding the chemistry of synthetic polymers will be briefly discussed. 

A term more general than polymer is that of macromolecule. Macromolecules are chemical compounds formed from at least one thousand atoms linked by covalent bonds. They are common as natural substances like cellulose, proteins, lignin, etc., and also as synthetic compounds including plastics, fibers, elastomers, coatings, and adhesives. Many synthetic and some natural macromolecules have repetitive structures and are known as polymers. For example, cellulose is made from p-D-glucose residues interconnected by p-glucoside (1- 4) links, polystyrene is made from 1-phenylethylidene units, etc. 

Polymers can be viewed as consisting of a backbone on which are attached atoms or groups of atoms. The polymer backbone may have a linear, branched, or network structure. More unusual polymer structures may have peculiar characteristics such as star, comb-like, ladder, or other structures. For linear polymers the backbone extends mainly in one dimension, for sheets in two dimensions, and for reticulate polymers in 

The quality of estimated model parameters is determined by the experimental error variance, tr, and the properties of the dispersion matrix, (X X) , which in turn is determined by the experimental design. Let us have a closer look at the concept quality . 

It was shown in Chapter 3 that it is possible to assign confidence limits to each model parameter. This gives the precision of the estimate of each parameter 

Let each model parameter define a coordinate axis along which possible values of 

It is possible to use the F distribution to draw boundaries for the probable variation of all parameters simultaneously for any given probability level. These boundaries will define a closed space which confines probable estimates of the model parameters. 

Let be an estimate of the experimental error variance with r degrees of freedom let B be the vector of estimated model parameters let p be the number of estimated model parameters and let be the critical F value with (p,r) degrees of freedom and the significance level a. The boundaries of the joint confidence region is defined by the equation 

Main Group Metals in Organic Synthesis. Edited by H. Yamamoto, K. Oshima Copyright 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN 3-527-30508  

Despite their diverse nature, organic and inorganic lead compounds have, in fact, found broad application in selective organic synthesis. For example  

Relatively older applications (ca. 1990) of these reagents are summarized in appropriate books and reviews. 

According to the situation two different approaches may be possible. A big bang approach might be necessary in certain instances, e.g. when it is planned to establish a completely new test facility, which should be able to conduct studies in a GLP compliant way from the very start of its operations. On the other hand, a step-wise introduction of GLP could be preferable in many other situations, especially when an existing test facility would feel the need to comply with GLP. In the former instance, extensive planning is necessary anyway for the establishment of the test facility, and the simultaneous 

While the previously described tasks can be considered as rather straightforward, the issue of the suitability determination of apparatus, equipment and computerised systems may involve complex investigations, inquiries at the manufacturer or vendor, extensive acceptance testing and validations and/or vendor audits in order to render these systems GLP compliant. Most certainly the amount of work involved in these aspects will necessitate the prioritisation of the various systems in use at the test facility. In the assumed case of a test facility having been in operation for some time already, albeit not under GLP, these apparatus and systems may be credited to a certain extent with the assumption of suitability for their purposes. In a first round, therefore, only the relevant documentation already available on their performance need be collected, while a formal retrospective evaluation and acceptance testing may be deferred to a later time point. The policy document of test facility management dealing with the time plan for the introduction of GLP should include therefore also a timetable for such further activities to be performed after the successful implementation of GLP. 

Last but not least, one of the most important, but sometimes a little bit neglected, aspects in the implementation of GLP concerns the instruction, education and training of personnel. This does not only involve technicians, laboratory workers, animal caretakers or field hands, but also - and this has to be especially emphasised - the prospective Study Directors. Only if all individuals in the test facility can be considered to be on an equivalent level of theoretical and practical knowledge with regard to the application of the GLP rules can the test facility be expected to work in a perfectly compliant way. 

When all these issues have been addressed, all these documents have been produced, all these processes have been defined and all these activities have been concluded, then GLP is by no means already and finally implemented As the last step in the introduction of GLP into the operations of a test facility, there has to be a run-in period, in which two to four studies will have to be conducted to the full extent of the GLP requirements. It certainly may be a good idea, already in the preliminary stages of GLP introduction, to perform studies according to the GLP rules available at these time points in order to acquaint and familiarise the test facility personnel with the new working conditions. The proof of the pudding lies, however, in the execution of a number of studies in a practically faultless, GLP compliant way. Then, and 

Between US 12 and 15 billion per year is spent worldwide for analytical purposes the portion used for enzymes amounts to about 50 million. Enzymes are being employed in clinical chemistry, the food and cosmetic industries, and biotechnology for the routine analysis of about 80 different substances, mainly low-molecular weight metabolites but also effectors, inhibitors, and the activity of enzymes themselves. 

A broad spectrum of immunoassays for low-molecular weight haptens, macromolecules, and microorganisms have been made available in recent years through the enormous progress in immunological research, especially in the preparation of monoclonal antibodies. About one billion immunoassays are sold per year. 

Based on the sensor technologies developed for these purposes the application will expand enormously to other areas of chemical industry. According to a prognosis by Tschannen et al. (1987), in 1990 the biosensor market in Western Europe will rise to US 440 million. Worldwide, a potential market for 500 million glucose sensors is anticipated. 

A relevant aspect in biosensor research is the simplification of operation, the more so as test strips are at present still superior in this respect. 

The integration of electronic signal processing and display into disposable sensors appears to be difficult. Hybrid systems comprising a disposable sensor and a separate, portable device are likely to prevail. 

A large part of the computational work has been influenced by the introduction of curvilinear coordinates, designed to take advantage of the topography of potential surfaces. These coordinates allow for a smooth change from reactant to product conformations and in effect transform the rearrangement problem into the much simpler one of inelastic collisions. The various treatments have employed reaction-path (or natural collision) coordinates less restricted reaction coordinates atom-transfer coordinates, somewhat analogous to those used for electron-transfer and, for planar and spatial motion, bifurcation coordinates. 

The term cyclophane literally means any organic molecule containing a bridged aromatic ring. Thus specific cyclophanes such as the calixarenes and resorcarenes that we encountered in Section 

The scope of biochemical GC would be quite limited without sample derivatization. Yet, a simple chemical conversion of the compounds of interest into suitable derivatives is frequently all that is required for successful chromatography. Benzoic acid, typical of many naturally occurring substances which, because of their polarity, are not well suited for gas-chromatographic analysis, is readily converted by treatment with methanol in the presence of an acidic catalyst (such as boron trifluoride) into the thermally stable methyl benzoate, which is more volatile than the parent acid and becomes easier to chromatograph. As another example, GC properties are favorably affected when the typical alcohol cholesterol is converted to the silyl ether by simple treatment with chlorotrimethylsilane in pyridine. 

Examination of the current literature reveals, however, that more elaborate derivatization reagents and methods than these are frequently used in the GC analysis of complex mixtures, and that still more elaborate ones continue to be developed, suggesting that simplicity of operation and volatility, thermal stability, and easier resolution of derivatives are only a few of the qualities desired for many a gas-chromatographic analysis. 

It is the objective of the following discussion to trace the development of currently used reagents for the derivatization of the more commonly encountered functional groups and combinations thereof, with emphasis on the special areas of applicability for each method as well as its limitations. 

In general, desired qualities for a derivatization method, other than those mentioned above may include the following speed quantitativeness functional group selectivity formation of products stable toward hydrolysis, oxidation, etc. formation of products with enhanced response in certain detectors availability of structural information from retention data formation of products whose mass spectra yield ample structural information formation of a single product per constituent whenever possible. 

Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) has been used successfully for characterization of the toughness of brittle materials. The driving force of the crack advance is described by the parameters such as the stress intensity factor (K) and the strain energy release rate (G). Unstable crack propagates when the energy stored in the sample is larger than the work required for creation of two fracture surfaces. Thus, fracmre occurs when the strain energy release rate exceeds the critical value. Mathematically, it can be written as 

In some cases, the material fails macroscopically in a brittle mode, but small-scale plastic deformation or yielding takes place ahead of the crack tip as a consequence of stress concentration. The LEFM is valid provided that a term 2 /p, that is, the plastic work required to extend the crack, is incorporated into 

Equation 11.5 (57,58). In this case, a circular plastic zone of a diameter 2r is formed ahead of crack tip. The plastic zone radius is given by 

For the experimental determination of LEFM parameters, compact tension (CT) and single edge notched (SEN) bending specimens are commonly used. According to the European Structural Integrity Society (ESIS) test protocol (59) and standard practices (60,61), A) under mode I can be determined from the load-displacement curves according to the relationship  

Polymerization is performed either by condensation or addition polymerization, depending on the type of starting monomer. For cross-linking, comonomers such as divinylbenzene (styrene), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, epichlorohydrin, 2,3-dibromopropanol, and divinylsulfone (saccharides) are added (Ghethie and Schell, 1967 Porath, Janson, and Laas, 1971 Laas, 1975). 

A third variant in polymerization technology is the swollen emulsion polymerization pioneered by Ugelstad et al. (1980). The procedure is performed in two steps. First the polymerization is started by adding a swelling agent, which causes the submicrometre polymer particles to swell by large volumes of the monomer. The increase in volume can reach a factor of 1000. Second, the monomer-swollen beads of defined size are polymerized in a consecutive step. 

Having briefly examined the structure of organic packings and the various routes in their manufacture, the most important features may be summarized as follows  

In accordance with the bulk composition, polymer packings are stable across almost the entire pH range, particularly under strong alkaline conditions. Chemical stability is affected by oxidizing and reducing solutions. 

During hydration of cement a highly alkaline pore solution (pH between 13 and 13.8), principally of sodium and potassium hydroxides, is obtained (Section 2.1.1). In this environment the thermodynamically stable compounds of iron are iron oxides and oxyhydroxides. Thus, on ordinary reinforcing steel embedded in alkaline concrete a thin protective oxide film (the passive film) is formed spontaneously [1-3]. This passive film is only a few nanometres thick and is composed of more or less hydrated iron oxides with varying degree of Fe and Fe [4j. The protective action of the passive film is immune to mechanical damage of the steel surface. It can, however, be destroyed by carbonation of concrete or by the presence of chloride ions, the reinforcing steel is then depassivated [5j. 

Branca et alP reported a detailed and understandable analysis of the evolution of various coherence orders in a Correlated 2D spectroscopy revamped by asymmetric z-gradient echo detection (CRAZED) like pulse sequence, used to select a signal from intermolecular multi quantum coherences (iMQCs). Because the signal to-noise-ratio of iMQC is much lower than the signal from conventional single quantum coherence (SQC), an optimization of experimental parameters is a necessity when measurements are made with iMQC. For this purpose a phase cycle is shown that not only allows a simpler selection of a particular quantum coherence order, but also removes receiver artifacts. 

With the advent of powerful lasers capable of generating short light pulses, a new era of research commenced [62-64]. Notably, the new light sources permit the measurement of lifetimes of excited states and the detection of short-lived intermediates such as free radicals and ions. The concomitant development of sophisticated detection methods has also brought about continuous progress during the 

Time-resolved measurements were initiated both by physicists, who were principally interested in photophysical processes that left the chemical structures of the molecules intact, and by chemists, who were mainly interested in the chemical alterations of the irradiated molecules, but also in the associated photophysical steps. The parallel development of these two lines of research is reflected in the terminology. For example, the term flash photolysis, as used by chemists, applies to time-resolved measurements of physical property changes caused by chemical processes induced by the absorption of a light flash (pulse). Flash photolysis serves to identify short-lived intermediates generated by bond breakage, such as free radicals and radical ions. Moreover, it allows the determination of rate constants of reactions of intermediates. Therefore, this method is appropriate for elucidating reaction mechanisms. 

For pico- and femtosecond studies, time-resolved measurements require powerful pulsed laser systems operated in conjimction with effective detection techniques. Relevant commercially available laser systems are based on Ti sapphire oscillators, tunable between 720 and 930 nm (optimum laser power around 800 nm). For nanosecond work, Nd iYAG (neodymium-doped yttrium-alumi-num-gamet) (1064 nm) and ruby (694.3 nm) laser systems are commonly employed. For many applications, light pulses of lower wavelength are produced with the aid of appropriate nonlinear crystals through second, third, or fourth harmonic generation. For example, short pulses of 2=532, 355, and 266 nm are generated in this way by means of Nd YAG systems. Moreover, systems based 

Principally, the pump and probe technique depicted in Fig. 1.21 is apphed in time-resolved transient absorption experiments. A pump beam, directed onto the sample, generates excited species or reactive intermediates such as free radicals. The formation and decay of these species can be monitored with the aid of an analyzing (probe) light beam that passes through the sample perpendicular to the direction of the pump beam. In principle, a set-up of this kind is also suitable for recording luminescence, if it is operated without the probe beam. 

Modern detection systems are based on the charge-coupled device (CCD) technique, which is not indicated in the schematic of Fig. 1.22. 

The very unusual absence of a new volume of Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry limits the number of quality reviews to have been published this year, and those that have appeared tend to be referred to at the beginnings of relevant chapters. This chapter is therefore unusually brief. 

In the field of origin of life studies Eschenmoser and Kisakurek have discussed the potential biogenic relationship between hexose- and pentose-based nucleic acids, and a paper has appeared from the same group on the base pairing between oligonucleotides comprising pentopyranosyl d- and l- nucleotides.  

Krishnamurthy, S. Pitsch, M. Minton, C. Miculka, N. Windhab and A. Eschenmoser, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 1996,35,1537. 

Carbohydrate Chemistry, Volume 30 The Royal Society of Chemistry, 1998 

The synthesis and biological activity of glycolipids, with a focus on ganglio- 

Combinatorial methods have been used to generate penta- and hexa-peptides with monosaccharide-recognition ability. A number of review articles have appeared concerning solution and solid-phase approaches to the generation of carbohydrate-based combinatorial libraries. The use of anomeric radicals in the synthesis of 0- and C-glycosides has been reviewed, as have the conformations of the radicals and their reactions under reductive conditions. An extensive review of iodine and iodine-based reagents in carbohydrate chemisry has appeared.  

Last year saw the death of Professor Guy Dutton, well known for his leading work on polysaccharide structural analysis his obituary has appeared.  

Norgard-Sumnicht, S. Argade, J.D. Marth, H. van Halbeek and A Varki, Glycobiology, 2000,10,669. 

Kausch (1911) first infused glucose for nutrition after surgical procedures, and Henriques and Andersen injected hydrolyzed protein into animals in 1913. Fat was infused experimentally in 1916 by Murlin and Riche and was used in humans following the results of Yamakawa s work in 1920. Early literature on parenteral nutrition has been documented by Geyer (1960) and more recent accounts have been given by Lee (1974), Zumtobel (1974), Ghadimi (1975), Fischer (1976), and Shenkin and Wretlind (1978). 

Anaphylactoid reactions to sugars, amino acids, and fat emulsions are rare. With regard to sugars, the causal role of macromolecular contaminants in eliciting such reactions has been demonstrated in some cases. No anaphylactic shock due to amino acid mixtures has apparently been reported in the literature, but flush and urticaria may occur occasionally. For fat emulsions adverse reactions are dependent on their composition. Some emulsifiers may give rise to antibody formation and subsequently be responsible for development of allergic reactions. 

Reactive distillation occurs in multiphase fluid systems, with an important role of the interfacial transport phenomena. It is an inherently multicomponent process with much more complexity than similar binary processes. Multi-component thermodynamic and diffusional coupling in the phases and at the interface is accompanied by complex hydrodynamics and chemical reactions [4, 42, 43]. As a consequence, an adequate process description has to be based on specially developed mathematical models. However, sophisticated RD models are hardly applicable for plant design, model-based control and online process optimization. For such cases, a reasonable model reduction should be applied [44], 

An overview of possible modeling approaches for RD is shown in Fig. 10.1. A process model consists of submodels for mass transfer, reaction and hydrodynamics whose complexity and rigor vary within a broad range. For example, mass transfer between the vapor and the liquid phase can be described on the grounds of the most rigorous rate-based approach, with the Maxwell-Stefan diffusion equations, or it can be accounted for by the simple equilibrium-stage model assuming thermodynamic equilibrium between the two phases. 

Homogeneously catalyzed RD, with a liquid catalyst acting as a mixture component, and autocatalyzed RD present essentially a combination of transport 

Modeling of hydrodynamics in multiphase vapor-liquid contactors includes an appropriate description of axial dispersion, hquid holdup and pressure drop. The correlations giving such a description have been published in numerous papers and are collected in several reviews and textbooks (e.g. [49, 50]). Nevertheless, there is stiU a need for a better description of hydrodynamics in catalytic column internals, this is being reflected by research activities in progress [51-53]. 

In summary, the mechanical and flow behavior in the melt is dominated by the block character and phase relationships between the PS and PEO sequences. 

Degree of Precipitation and Composition of Crystals of PEO/PS Block Copolymers B and E Obtained in Ethylbenzene (EB) and Amyl Acetate (AA) at Different 

In the following discussion on fractionation and selective crystallization of the PEO-PS blocks, it should be borne in mind that although the molecular weight distribution attained by means of anionic polymerization is narrow, it is still sufficiently broad to allow for significant fractional separation according to molecular weight. 

Convenient measures of the fractionation are the total fraction crystal-lizable (PEO plus associated PS) p and the weight fraction of PS attached to the PEO in the crystal (see Table 6.1). In general, the crystals have associated with them less PS than is in the parent polymer (Wp w), the difference 

Natural products still have many surprises in store, as evidenced by the discovery of the antibiotic oxetanocin, a nucleoside analogue possessing a four-membered sugar ring other antibiotics apparently contain novel thio-sugar components. We have reviewed about 1460 references for this report. 

Reports on more general aspects of carbohydrates have included 

Mukaiyama, Org. Synth. Interdiscip. Challenge Proc. lUPAC Syrop., 5th, 

The relevant competent authority may also include competent authorities 

Regarding the requirement for competent authority approval for packages designed to contain fissile material, it is noted that para. 672 excludes certain packages from those requirements that apply specifically to fissile material. However, all relevant requirements that apply to the radioactive, non-fissile properties of the package contents still apply. 

The relationship between the competent authority and the applicant has to be clearly understood. It is the applicant s responsibility to make the case to demonstrate comphance with the apphcable requiranents. The competent authority s responsibility is to judge whether or not the information submitted adequately demonstrates such compliance. The competent authority should be free to check statements, calculations and assessments made by the applicant, even, if necessary, by performance of independent calculations or tests. However, it should not make the case for the applicant, because this would put it in the difficult position of being both advocate and judge . 

Further details of the role of the competent authority can be found in regulations issued nationally or by the international transport orgaiuzations. 

The applicant should contact the competent authority during the preliminary design stage to discuss the implementation of the relevant design principles and to estabhsh both the approval procedure and the actions which should be carried out. 

Unfortunately, owing to experimental difficulties, interfacial measurements in molten salts often need to be made at solid metal substrates, and these give rather less reliable results.For example, the agreement between the reported values of the minimum capacitance for both solid and liquid metals tends to be quite poor. This may be ascribed to melt impurities, especially water and, at the higher temperatures, spurious parallel components arising from materials instabilities. However, progress has been achieved in a number of experimentally difficult situations, notably in the alumina-cryolite melt system which is so important in aluminum production. 

Early investigations, particularly by the Russian schools, indicated that the interfacial tension and capacitance for liquid metals in contact with melts were symmetrical, parabolic functions of electrode potential with common principal axes through their points of zero charge. While the characteristics of these electrical multilayers appear to be largely independent of the nature of the metal phase, the observed capacitances do depend, both in magnitude 

Some general features of the interfacial capacitance/potential plots can be summarized as follows  

These comments apply to the molten alkali metal halides. In molten 

The foregoing observations have proved a durable guide to interfacial properties over a number of years. However, in the light of more recent studies, including those of electrode processes in melts, it may be necessary to revise certain detailed aspects, particularly concerning the higher-temperature behavior of the two branches of the capacitance-potential curves. 

Nuclear magnetic relaxation is probably the most powerful method for the elucidation of microdynamic properties of liquid systems as is apparent from the numerous applications which have been presented. 

The applications cover a wide range of problems, from tests of theoretical models for molecular mobility in simple liquids and investigations of ion-solvent interactions, to studies of complicated biological systems, such as those concerned with the mechanism of enzymatic reactions and the function of biological membranes. 

Nuclear magnetic relaxation is due to time-dependent interactions affecting the nuclear spins. In general, several different terms have to be included in the time-dependent spin hamiltonian and 

Relaxation in Molecules or Ions With Covalently Bonded Halogens 

The quadrupole moment is denoted eQ n stands for the asymmetry para- 

Fresh mixed-oxide fuels consist of a UO2 matrix with a content of 3 to 4% fissile plutonium, with the plutonium concentrated in the master-mixture grains. During irradiation, fission product and transuranium elements are built up in the same manner as in uranium fuel the newly formed transuranium elements are homogeneously distributed in the fuel matrix with the exception of the preferential plutonium breeding in the outermost zone of the pellet. The plutonium constituent has little effect on the chemical conditions in the fuel therefore, both types of fuels are quite similar with regard to the chemistry environment of the fission products under the operating conditions of light water reactors. 

UO2 (as well as (U,Pu)02 for thermal reactors) form a crystal lattice of the calcium fluorite type showing a lattice constant of 0.5468 nm (5.468 A) at stoichiometric composition. As can be seen from Fig. 3.12., the structure consists of a cubic 

After being stopped, the fission fragments reach their rest positions usually inside a UO2 crystallite. There, their position might be at one of three different locations  

At least in the first two above-mentioned cases, the fission products are present in the fuel in an atomic-dispersed state which does not seem to allow the identification of a definite chemical compound. Usually this is the situation at low fuel bumup with correspondingly low fission product concentrations in the fuel matrix. The chemical state of such finely dispersed fission product atoms cannot be described by the properties of chemical compounds rather it has to be characterized by atomic properties, the most important of which, under the given circumstances, are the position in the crystal lattice and the valency state. 

For general considerations concerning the chemical state of the fission products in the fuel matrix (in particular of the atomic dispersed ones, but to a certain extent also of those contained in precipitations), one may establish the following postulates  

Most phase diagrams depict the equilibrium situation as a function of composition, temperature, and, occasionally, pressure. When one or more of the components in the system is gaseous, it is essential to distinguish between the partial pressures of the active components and the total pressure. Diagrams are also prepared that display regions of metastability however, these are specific for selected situations and processing times. 

The general principles and techniques used to establish phase equilibrium are common for both equilibrium and nonequilibrium diagrams. These can be divided into three categories. One pertains to the evaluation of the chemical aspects for the system, for example, composition and structure. The second concerns the determination of the physical conditions within the system, for example, temperature, total pressure, and time. The result of such studies is a description of the variations in 

It is generally much easier to make most measurements at room temperature. Consequently, samples are frequently quenched from higher temperatures prior to characterization. The effectiveness of the quench determines the validity of subsequent interpretations. Many factors affect this uncertainty. The assumption that a quenched sample represents the true situation of the sample at the temperature and time it was quenched must always be questioned and confirmed when possible. 

Describing the chemical nature of the system requires determining the number, composition, and structure of the phases present for each set of physical and chemical conditions specified. Seldom does a single experimental method provide all the needed information. A combination of techniques is required to define the system completely. 

Because of the opaque nature of most materials, optical microscopy is limited to the surface region. Hence, the sample must be cut or abraded to reveal features as a function of depth. Thin sections may be cut to observe features in transmission. 

Because of the technical success of rhodium based hydroformylations, it is understandable that since the 1970s the vast majority of academic and industrial investigations in this area dealt with the development of new rhodium catalysts. However, the worldwide demand of rhodium for chemical and technical processes and its enormous price stimulate the search for alternative transition-metal catalysts up to now [1]. A particular focus was given to ruthenium [2]. 

A comparison of Rh and Ru catalysts in the hydroformylation of linear butenes [4] or the strong electron-deficient substrate 3,3,3-trifluoropropene led to the conclusion that the latter are less active [5]. Moreover, in the hydroformylation of propene in comparison with Co and Rh catalysts, an inferior selectivity was noted [6]. In a competition experiment with the iridium-catalyzed hydroformylation of several a-olefins at 13 bar syngas pressure and 100 C, a related PPhj-modified Ru complex revealed no activity [7]. On the other hand, unmodified ruthenium based catalysts were shown to be more active than osmium complexes [8], thus the following rough order of reactivity results  

Noteworthy, the hydroformylation with cobalt catalysts can draw benefit from the addition of ruthenium [9]. For example, the initial rate of the reaction with cyclohexene was 19 times faster with Co2(CO)g/Ru3(CO)j2 in comparison to the monometallic Co system [10]. By combining the superior hydroformylation properties of a rhodium catalyst with the excellent hydrogenation activity of 

Support vector machines (SVM) represent a method of classification (binary classification in the standard approach) and regression. 

A small disadvantage with this method is the fact that the standard model is binary and, in order to apply it to problems with multiple classes, it is necessary to obtain several partial models, subsequently abrogated based on various strategies such as one-versus-air or one-versus-one. Nevertheless, support vector machines represent a state-of-the-art classification technique that has been intensively studied and bench-marked against a variety of classification methods, proving both theoretical and computational advantages [9]. 

Tributes to the life and work of Professors R. Bogn r and J. E. Courtois have appeared in Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry. 

A survey of major historical signifcance has been presented by F. W. Lichtenthaler on Emil Fischer s monumental work on the proof of the configuration of the sugars. A century on, it gives an in-depth insight into the story in which the reasoning and creative processes as well as elements of serendipity involved in the work are featured.  

In the area of synthesis Garegg has surveyed various regioselective reactions which are applied in oligosaccharide synthesis under the title Challenges and opportunities for organic synthesis with saccharides of biological importance. More specifically a substantial review has dealt with basic aspects of the major issue of the methods available for the preparation of 1,2-asymmetric centres with defined relative stereochemistry, and 1,3-difunctional compounds in which 1,2-difunctional stereorelationships may also be established. A later publication which builds on this will be of more specific relevance in carbohydrate chemistry. More specific topics to have been surveyed are cycloaddition reactions in carbohydrate chemistry and noble metal-catalysed oxidations of carbohydrates.  

Enaymes continue to gain hold as specific synthetic tools in the field, and four major reviews on the topic have been published. One deals with their use in the field generally, while the others focus on the enzymic production of unusual sugars, glycosides, oligosaccharides and complex carbohydrates e.g. glycoconjugates.  

The topic of hydrogen bonding of carbohydrates and hydrate inclusion compounds has been surveyed as have the topics of intramolecular hydrogen bonding and molecular association in monosaccharides and natural cellulose. Other reviews on physical aspects of carbohydrates have dealt with liquid crystal compounds and with molecular dynamics simulations in the field.  

The renaissance being enjoyed by carbohydrate chemistry is reflected in the world-wide strength of the 1990 literature of the subject, biolo and improved methodologies stretching research further and faster. 

While the evolved format of these Reports largely allows for the handling of new material, some adaptation is desirable and (after some debate) treatment of chain-extended sugar derivatives is now included in Chapter 2. Carbohydrates as chiral auxiliaries is another aspect that the normal format does not accommodate too readily it is treated in Chapter 24, and Chapter 4 now includes brief reference to chemical aspects of the cyclodextrins. 

A monograph on carbohydrate chemistry has appeared in Topics in Current Chemistry, the history of the subject from its origins has been surveyed in a Chinese language publication and a data bank of the structures of all complex carbohydrates larger than disaccharides has been set up. Reports of papers given at an American Chemical Society Symposium on computer modelling of carbohydrate comp ounds have appeared in a collected volume.  

The nomenclature committee of the International Union of Biochemistry has recommended that the early method used to number the atoms of myo-inositol be relaxed. According to the proposal substituents need not necessarify be numbered so that the smallest possible locant is used authors may use alternative designations to bring out structural relationships.  

An extensive review has appeared on the anomeric and exo-anomeric effects in carbohydrate chemistry. A further review of the anomeric effect asserts that n- a contributions to the former effect are small relative to those of n- n destabilising components. Further consideration has been given to the effect following analysis of 529 crystal structures of carbohydrates, in particular the C-O bond lengths and C-O-C and O-C-O bond angles as they depend on dihedral angles in the sequence C-O-C-O-C. The work is an extension of an earlier study (Vol. 18, p.2, ref. 4).  

Witczak, Stud. Nat. Prod. Chem.. 1989, 3 (Stereosel. Synth., Pt. 

Pure Aopl. Chem.. 1989, 1217 (Chem. Abstr.. 1989, 111. 

Auberson, M. Bimwala, E. De Guchteneere, E. Vieira, and J. Wagner, ACS Svmp. Ser.. 1989, 386 (Trends. Synth. Carbohydr. Chem.), 197 (Chem. Abstr.. 1989, Hi. 97 621. 

Handbook of Biomaterial Properties. Edited by J. Black and G. Hastings. Published in 1998 by Chapman Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 60330 6. 

1 = very mild surface degradation visible at 60x magnification 

3 = moderate surface degradation visible without magnification 

Printed paper is a cost efficient medium with a high capacity for information, universally easily available and fuUy recyclable. Paper and board based packaging 

With respect to mass the most important component is the pigment with a total amount of almost 18 x 10 t per year dry material worldwide. There may be only one kind of pigment in a coating color, or more commonly a combination of several types e. g. clay, calcium carbonate, talc, titanium dioxide (more details see 2.2.2). The share of pigment in the dry coating is about 85-95 wt%. 

Nonionic polymers, which can be used as stabilizers are, e.g., starches, polyvinyl alcohols, and polyacrylamides. Nonionic polymers work as protective colloids their mechanism of stabilization is Steric stabilization. Carboxy methyl cellulose bears a small anionic charge along the chain. However, it is often considered to act as a protective colloid. Actually, carboxy methyl cellulose can be considered to use both its protective colloid properties and its charge in stabilizing, thus acting as an electrosteric stabihzer. 

The charge of pigment dispersants is usually anionic but, in some applications, cationic dispersants are preferred. They are seldom needed in coating color pigments, but they are beneficial in pigment dispersions meant for filler applications or for specialty coating appHcations. Cationic dispersants are typically cationically charged polymeric compounds e.g. modified polyethylenimines, polyvinylamines. Usually they do not act as effectively as anionic dispersants. 

There are three kinds of binders in coating, the (main) binder, the co-binder and the sole-binder. A sole-binder is a single binder that alone can perform aU the 

An appreciation has been written of the seminal, major contributions of H.S. Isbell to carbohydrate chemistry.  

Several carbohydrate applications have been included in a review of micro-wave-assisted organic reactions, and a survey of chemical reagents in photo-aflinity labelling included the role of various base-labelled azido- and thio-nucleosides, sugar azide derivatives and p-benzoylbenzoate esters of nucleosides. A further review intitled Reverse Anomeric Effect Fact or Fiction refers to early evidence based on studies of glycosyl pyridinium and imidazolium salts. It concludes that its origin as an electronic effect is not supported by theory or experimental results.  

A review in Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry has covered C- H coupling in sugar derivatives and included theoretical aspects, experimental techniques and conformational dependencies. A related survey was produced on C nuclear magnetic relaxation and motional behaviour of carbohydrates in solution. Theoretical and observed data were included.  

Collins and R.J. Ferrier, Monosaccharides, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1995, p. 574. 

Phase analysis by Mossbauer spectroscopy is possible due to the hypeifine interactions of the Mossbauer probe nucleus as follows  

Isomer shift Electric monopole interaction of the nucleus with the 5-electron density, which is affected by the valence electrons via shielding effects. 

Quadrupole splitting Interaction of the electric quadrupole moment of the nucleus with an electric field gradient produced by a noncubic crystal symmetry and/or by a nonsymmetric valence electron distribution. 

Magnetic splitting Interaction of the magnetic moment of the nucleus with a magnetic field. 

The temperature dependence of these interactions is of particular interest for the interpretation of Mossbauer data. In the case of superparamagnetic phases the grain sizes of nanoparticles can be obtained by measurement at liquid He temperature. 

The lack of a precise definition of a carbohydrate has led to somewhat arbitrary decisions as to whether border-line cases merit inclusion in our survey we have tried to assess likely interest to carbohydrate chemists, or whether significant carbohydrate chemistry is discussed in work focussed as much if not more on aglycone units. We apologize if our judgement does not always meet with your approval  

Reviews of a more general nature not covered elsewhere in this report include a review on the evolution of a general strategy for the stereoselective construction of polyoxygenated natural products, and a review of some miscellaneous topics involving synthetic 

Sztaricskai, I.Pelyvas, and R.Bognar, Magy. Kern. Lapja, 1986, 147 

As early as 1888 Horton reported the formation of stable urotropin-bromide adducts [23]. The storage of bromine in organic soHds and particularly as a liquid complex phase stabilized by quaternary ammonium salts is of outstanding importance for modern battery applications. In conjunction with polymeric and porous carbon matrices, these species were used in investigations aiming at the 

Ion-exchanger resins De-acidite FF anion exchange resin [13] 

These anomeric protecting groups include the allyl, methoxyphenyl (MP), n-pentenyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl (SE), /-butyldimethylsilyl, and t-butyldiphenylsilyl groups. Removal of this class of protecting groups releases the anomeric hydroxyl function to be converted into leaving groups [8]. 

Two symposia reports have appeared on issues associated with sweetness, the first dealing with natural and artificial sweetners, which included consideration of theoretical, structural and physical chemical correlations, while the second focused on the sweetness of halogenated sugar derivatives. A lectoe on the synthesis of glycothanes as receptors in novel compounds derived from a,a-trehalose has been published.  

A review on protective group strategies in carbohydrate synthesis has appeared which included consideration of the preparation of phosphate and sulphate esters of heparin oligosaccharides, and a related article covered the detailed consideration of the binding domains associated with the heparin-antithrombin 3 complex.  

A survey of the C-homologenation of sugars involving the use of thiazoles in aldol condensations has appeared, and another covers a diverse range of synthetic methods for synthesizing carbohydrate derivatives from acyclic precursors.  

Free radical chemistry continues to be of importance in the field and a survey has been published on polar and enthalpic effects in free radical reactions. A further short review dealt with free radicals, carbenes and nitrenes at the anomeric centre of carbohydrates. A useful survey has appeared of the application of carbohydrate based chiral auxilliaries in stereoselective syntheses which covers a range of reactions, for example cycloaddition processes, reductions and Strecker reactions.  

Considerable interest continues to be shown in the application of enzymes in synthesis of carbohydrate compounds, and a review has appeared on the use of aldolases, glycosyl transferases and subtilisin. Other reviews have concentrated on aldolases rqrplied in the synthesis of C-C bonds. Another deals with the synthesis of optically active carbohydrates by biooxidation of chlorinated aromatic compounds using Pseudomonas putida. Enzymes may be also used to 

In this section we will provide a brief but self-contained overview of relativistic Hamiltonians for all-electron calculations. More detailed discussions can be found in [5-7] and references therein. In the non-relativistic domain the electronic Hamiltonian has the form 

An important observation is that the relativistic electronic Hamiltonian has exactly the same generic form (3.1) as the non-relativistic one. This feature becomes perhaps even more manifest when expressing the electronic Hamiltonian on second-quantized form 

However, before going into a detailed discussion of various relativistic Hamiltonians we will introduce an alternative form of the electronic Hamiltonian (3.4), which is useful for wavefunction-based correlation methods. It is obtained by switching to a particle-hole formalism and then introducing normal ordering. In the second-quantization formalism creation and annihilation operators refer to some specific set of (orthononnal) orbitals, and Slater determinants in Hilbert space translate into occupation-number veetors in Fock space. The annihilation operators in equation 3.4 by definition give zero when acting on the vacuum state 

From the above mentioned relations it is easy to see that the vacuum expectation value of the electronic Hamiltonian (3.4) is zero. The particle-hole formalism implies a redefinition of the vacuum state. Since correlation energy is defined with respect to the Hartree-Fock energy, we redefine the vacuum state as being the occupation-number vector corresponding to the converged HF determinant, the Fermi vacuum. This leads to a redefinition of creation 

It was often stated that energy allocation in ecological systems can be described by dry mass distribution and that it is not necessary to perform calorimetric experiments. Other authors hold that For the ecologist dealing with specific time and energy budgets or population energetics, direct calorimetry of representative members of the population is a prerequisite for accuracy [26]. Hickman and Pi- 

Boyd and Goodyear [125] showed that determinations of just energy flow or energv transfer are too coarse simplifications for ecological systems. Carnivorous nutriments are of huge food value due to their content of proteins and thus form a rich diet while the food value of herbivorous diet is much lower with an interme- 

Applied to herbivorous diet some general rules can be stated  

In general, one can state that bomb calorimetry is more suitable for estimating the digestable energy content of animal than of plant material [125]. 

Caloric content of some typical chemical compounds and classes of matter, used 

According to Chap. VII, Sec. 8 of Vol. 1 of this handbook, there are three main viscosity coefficients t/j to 773 with different orthogonal orientations of the director n to the direction of the flow velocity v and the velocity gradient giadv. 

A further viscosity coefficient tJi2 has to be taken into account if the director lies in the shear plane and is neither parallel to the flow velocity nor parallel to its gradient. If the director lies half way between velocity and its gradient, the resulting viscosity is 

The methods used to determine shear viscosity coefficients can be divided into three 

---

The calculation of the time evolution operator in multidimensional systems is a fomiidable task and some results will be discussed in this section. An alternative approach is the calculation of semi-classical dynamics as demonstrated, among others, by Heller [86, 87 and 88], Marcus [89, 90], Taylor [91, 92], Metiu [93, 94] and coworkers (see also [83] as well as the review by Miller [95] for more general aspects of semiclassical dynamics). This method basically consists of replacing the 5-fimction distribution in the true classical calculation by a Gaussian distribution in coordinate space. It allows for a simulation of the vibrational... 

A3.13.4.5 IVR DURING AND AFTER COHERENT EXCITATION GENERAL ASPECTS... 

A monograph (1) covers the pioneering period of sulfa dmg development and describes over 5000 sulfanilamide derivatives, their preparation, properties, trade names, and biological testing. This review is remarkably complete through 1944. Several thousand additional derivatives have been made since, but no comparable coverage is available. A definitive account of medical appHcations up to 1960 has been pubHshed (2), and a review of experimental antibacterial aspects has been made (3). Chapters on general aspects of sulfonamides and sulfones have appeared (4,5). A review of the clinical efficacy of trimethoprim—sulfamethoxazole has been pubHshed (6). 

The purpose of this section is to provide guidehnes for this preparation. General aspects are covered. Preparations for the specific units can be drawn from these. Topics include analyst, model, plant, and laboratory preparation. Since no individual analyst can be responsible for all of these activities, communication with other personnel is paramount for the success of the analysis. 

All main aspects of analytical and bioanalytical sciences is covered by the conference program. AC CA-05 consists of 12 invited lectures and seven symposia General Aspects of Analytical Chemistry, Analytical Methods, Objects of the Analysis,. Sensors and Tests, Separation and Pre-concentration, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, History and Methodology of Analytical Chemistry. Conference program includes two special symposia Memorial one, dedicated to Anatoly Babko and Analytical Russian-Germany-Ukrainian symposium (ARGUS-9). 

General aspects of these reactions are discussed by K. Heusler and J. Kalvoda. ... 

After briefly introducing the main electronic features of CNTs (Sec. 2) and some general aspects of electronic conduction and transmission (Sec.. 1), we will show how complex electrical measurements to perform on such tiny entities are (Sec. 4). Then we will present the main experimental results obtained on the electrical resistivity of MWCNT and SWCNT and the very recent data relative to the thermopower of SWCNT bundles (Sec. 5). We will also discuss the effect of intercalation on the electrical resistivity of SWCNT bundles (Sec. 6). Finally, we will present some potential applications (Sec. 7). 

K. Binder. General aspects of computer simulation techniques and their applications in polymer physics. In K. Binder, ed. Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics Simulations in Polymer Science. New York Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 3 1. 

---