Observation time

Fig. 5 (a) Ultrasonic signal overlapped by a thermal component (observation time of 100 iis), (b) Low frequency ultrasonic signal filtered (observation time of 10 ns). 

For some experiments, the solar neutrino flux and the rate of decay of the proton being extreme examples, tire count rate is so small that observation times of months or even years are required to yield rates of sufficiently small relative uncertainty to be significant. For high count rate experiments, the limitation is the speed with which the electronics can process and record the incoming infomiation. 

The shear deformation potential for the (111) and (100) valley minima determined by fits to the data of Fig. 4.10 are shown in Table 4.5 and compared to prior theoretical calculations and experimental observations. The deformation potential of the (111) valley has been extensively investigated and the present value compares favorably to prior work. The error assigned recognizes the uncertainty in final resistivity due to observed time dependence. The distinguishing characteristic of the present value is that it is measured at a considerably larger strain than has heretofore been possible. Unfortunately, the present data are too limited to address the question of nonlinearities in the deformation potentials [77T02]. 

For concreteness, let us suppose that the universe has a temporal depth of two to accommodate a Fi edkin-type reversibility i.e. the present and immediate past are used to determine the future, and from which the past can be recovered uniquely. The RUGA itself is deterministic, is applied synchronously at each site in the lattice, and is characterized by three basic dimensional units (1) digit transition, D, which represents the minimal informational change at a given site (2) the length, L, which is the shortest distance between neighboring sites and (3) an integer time, T, which, while locally similar to the time in physics, is not Lorentz invariant and is not to be confused with a macroscopic (or observed) time t. While there are no a priori constraints on any of these units - for example, they may be real or complex - because of the basic assumption of finite nature, they must all have finite representations. All other units of physics in DM are derived from D, L and T. 

In some systems with truncated response observation times and utilizing slow acting antagonists a depression of the maximal response can be observed that is due to the kinetics of offset of the molecules and not a molecular mechanism of antagonism (hemi-equilibrium conditions). 

For seeing-hmited observations, the benefit of larger telescopes (measured in needed observing time to reach a given signal-to-noise ratio) varies as where D is the diameter of the telescope. This is just the obvious advantage of more collecting area. 

Finally a word about efficiency observing time on large telescopes is a valuable asset, both in terms of cost and considering the ratio of observing time available to the time requested by astronomers. Marco et al. (2001) state that the observing efficiency defined as fhe ratio of science shutter time to available dark time is 10-30% for the ADONIS AO system while the corresponding ratio for other instruments is 50-80%. Some of this difference is due to the fact that most AO exposures are of short duration and the readout time is significant. In addition, AO systems use time to close the loop and optimize performance. Observations may also be necessary to characterize the PSF. 

It is implicit in the idea of a series elastic component that there should be a lag between the activation of the contractile apparatus and the rise of force measured between the ends of the muscle. The observed time lag is also commensurate with the idea that the series component is largely due to the crossbridges themselves. 

One of the most fruitful results of the investigations is that the on/off time distribution of a quantum dot follows power-law statistics [18,19] in the time region from several tens of milliseconds to hundreds of seconds. In other words, the average on/off time of quantum dots is dependent on the measurement (integration) time, that is, the time scale of the blinking depends on the observation time. 

Figure 8.14 (a) Values of as a function of corresponding diffusion times (observation times) for each CdTe quantum dot. Four sets of measurements for one sample were conducted with diferent sized pinholes and different solvent as follows (1) 25 Xm pinhole, in water (2) 25 Xm pinhole, in deuterated water (3) 50 Xm pinhole. 

The second method for the study of relaxation in spin-state equilibria makes use of the rapid change of pressure. Single-step pressure-jump relaxation requires an observation time of about lO s which is too slow. However, the... 

NOTE Following amphetamine, the intracellular postsynaptie potential (PSP) is reduced as is PI in the field potential. A reduction in the latency to and a modification in components of the rebound potential can also be observed. Time calibration 50 milliseconds. Intracellular amplitude 5 mV. 

The solvation dynamics of the three different micelle solutions, TX, CTAB, and SDS, exhibit time constants of 550, 285, 180 ps, respectively. The time constants show that solvent motion in these solutions is significantly slower than bulk water. The authors attribute the observed time constants to water motion in the Stern layer of the micelles. This conclusion is supported by the steady-state fluorescence spectra of the C480 probe in these solutions. The spectra exhibit a significant blue shift with respect the spectrum of the dye in bulk water. This spectral blue shift is attributed to the probe being solvated in the Stern layer and experiencing an environment with a polarity much lower than that of bulk water. 

Velocity maps of simple or complex liquids, emulsions, suspensions and other mixtures in various geometries provide valuable information about macroscopic and molecular properties of materials in motion. Two- and three-dimensional spin echo velocity imaging methods are used, where one or two dimensions contain spatial information and the remaining dimension or the image intensity contains the information of the displacement of the spins during an observation time. This information is used to calculate the velocity vectors and the dispersion at each position in the spatially resolved dimensions with the help of post-processing software. The range of observable velocities depends mainly on the time the spins... 

Fig. 3.1.4 Anisotropic self-diffusion of water in and filled symbols, respectively). The horizon-MCM-41 as studied by PFG NMR. (a) Depen- tal lines indicate the limiting values for the axial dence of the parallel (filled rectangles) and (full lines) and radial (dotted lines) compo-perpendicular (circles) components of the axi- nents of the mean square displacements for symmetrical self-diffusion tensor on the inverse restricted diffusion in cylindrical rods of length temperature at an observation time of 10 ms. / and diameter d. The oblique lines, which are The dotted lines can be used as a visual guide, plotted for short observation times only, repre-The full line represents the self-diffusion sent the calculated time dependences of the...

Comparison between xf a as determined on the basis of Eq. (3.1.15) from the microscopically determined crystallite radius and the intracrystalline diffusivity measured by PFG NMR for sufficiently short observation times t (top left of Figure 3.1.1), with the actual exchange time xintra resulting from the NMR tracer desorption technique, provides a simple means for quantifying possible surface barriers. In the case of coinciding values, any substantial influence of the surface barriers can be excluded. Any enhancement of xintra in comparison with x a, on the other side, may be considered as a quantitative measure of the surface barriers. 

It is worth noting that within a range of 20 %, five different methods of analyzing the crystallite size, viz., (a) microscopic inspection, (b) application of Eq. (3.1.7) for restricted diffusion in the limit of large observation times, (c) application of Eq. (3.1.15) to the results of the PFG NMR tracer desorption technique, and, finally, consideration of the limit of short observation times for (d) reflecting boundaries [Eq. (3.1.16)] and (e) absorbing boundaries [Eq. (3.1.17)], have led to results for the size of the crystallites under study that coincide. 

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