The Future

Other problems concerning transportation systems, waste processing and recycling systems, nahonal priorities, international economics, employment versus environmental quality, and personal freedoms will continue to surface. The choices will have to be made, ideally by educated citizens and charismatic leaders. 

1 The Smoake of London—Two Prophecies [Selected by James P. Lodge, ]r.. Maxwell Reprint, Elmsford, NY, 1969. 

Agricola, G., De Re Metallica, Basel, 1556. [English translation and commentary 1 C. Hoover and L. H. Hoover, Mining Magazine, London 1912]. Dover, New York, Beaver, Sir Hugh E. C., The growth of public opinion. In Problems and Control ( Pollution (F. S. Mallette, ed.). Reinhold, New York, 1955. 

and Swain, R. E., Report submitted to the Trail Smelter Arbitral Tribunal, U.S Bur. Mines Bull. 453. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1944. PiiKoedings of the First National Air Pollution Symposium, Pasadena, CA. Sponsored by thi- Stanford Research Institute in cooperation with the California Institute of Technology, University of California, and University of Southern California, 1949. 

McCabe, L. C. (ed.), Air Pollution (Proc. U.S. Tech. Conf. Air Pollution, 1950). McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952. 

The Development and Improvement of Procedures for the Study of the Primary Structure of Glycans 

Influence of oe-(2— 3)-linked and -(2— 6)-linked, Terminal N-Acetylneuraminic Acid Residues on the Chemical Shift of Anomeric and N-Acetyl Protons of Other Monosaccharide Residues Present in a Dianteunary Clycari 4 1  

NeuAc Residues Asialo chain Sialo chain 

In conclusion, on the basis of these well-defined values, it is possible to use high-resolution, H-n.m.r. spectroscopy as a finger- 

It thus seems feasible to predict the existence in man of several dozens of glycan structures, related to the oligosaccharides and glycoasparagines shown in Figs. 26-28 and 31, in glycoproteins that remain to be discovered. 

The Galactic Centre could provide a smoking gun with radio synchrotron, 7-ray and v data annihilations measure cold dark matter where Milky Way formation began inside-out , some 12 Gyr ago. Accretion models onto the central black hole fail to give sufficient low frequency radio or gamma ray emission to account for the observed fluxes from SagA, and it is tempting to invoke a more exotic alternative. For example, the low frequency radio emission can be explained by spike-enhanced self-absorbed synchrotron emission, 

Annihilation fluxes would be enhanced, to a level where such sources could possibly account for a subset of the unidentified EGRET gamma ray sources. 

The preceding interpretation rests heavily on the hypothesis that the dark matter consists primarily of the lightest N = l SUSY neutralinos. This is well motivated, but as has often been emphasized, the most compelling and elegant explanation of any natural phenomenon is often false. Of course, if accelerator evidence were found for SUSY, the odds in favour of a neutralino explanation of dark matter would be dramatically increased. 

Bucher, J. Dunkley, P. G. Ferreira, K. Moodley C. Skordis, PRL, submitted, astro-ph/0401417 (2004) 

Penton, J. Stocke J. M. Shull, ApJ Suppl., in press, astro-ph/0401036 (2004) 

The above two examples of GRIND extensions indicate that the GRIND are becoming more a family of descriptors than a closed methodology. There are aspects of the method which need improvement and some others which would open the possibility of applying the descriptors to other fields. With respect to the 

Goodford, A Computational-Procedure for Determining Energetically Favorable Binding-Sites on Biologically Important Macromolecules, J. Med. Chem. 1985, 28 (7), 849-857. 

Kubinyi, G. Folkers, Y. C. Martin (Eds.)3D QSAR in Drug Design, Kluwer/ ESCOM, Dordrecht, 1998, Vol. 2-3. 

Lemmen, T. Lengauer, Computational methods for the structural alignment of molecules, J. Comput.-Aided Mol. Des. 2000, 14 (3), 215-232. 

Folkers, A. Merz, D. Rognan, CoMFA Scope and Limitations, in 3D QSAR in Drug Design. Theory Methods and Applications, H. Kubinyi (Ed.), ESCOM, Leiden, 1993, pp. 583-618. 

the sheep and the first animal to be cloned from an adult cell in 1996, was the lone success out of the 277 attempts (Taylor, 2006). 

Successful transgenic studies have generated mice that produce milk with 33% more total solids (40-50% TS) and 17% less lactose than normal mouse milk. As the increase in the total solids is associated with a decrease in total milk volume, the net result is the same quantity of fat and protein being produced in a lesser total milk volume. If this technology could be extrapolated in dairy animals, milk that contains 

5% protein, 7% fat, 2.5% lactose, and 50% less water is not an improbable accomplishment. The advantages in terms of animal health would include less stress on the cow and on her udder since she would be producing one-half her normal volume of milk and decrease in mastitis owing to less lactose availability for the causative organisms. The processing industry would gain in terms of (1) skim milk with twice protein content and half the lactose content of normal milk, (2) easier to produce low lactose or lactose-free dairy products, (3) better product yields due to concentration, 

AbuGhazaleh, A.A., Schingoethe, D.J., Hippen, A.R., and Kalscheur, K.F. (2003). Milk conjugated linoleic acid response to fish oil supplementation of diets differing in fatty acid profiles. J. Dairy Sci. 86,944-953. 

AgResearch Now (2005). Your pasture, our pasture. 30% more milk. Interested pp. 1-20 www.agresearch.cri.nz/publications/nowjune, Issue 3. 

The most compelling aspects of the techniques, concepts, and research presented in this book are that they are essentially infinitely open ended. There will always be interesting new sounds, new physical discoveries, and new sound synthesis techniques developed which can bring expression and realism to sound effects synthesis. Oiu physical understanding is not yet complete in the areas of friction, nonlinear fluid dynamics, and countless other phenomena which cannot be easily observed or measured. Even if this knowledge were complete, systematic studies of the sound generation and radiation of such systems have not yet been carried out. 

Lena Petrovic, Brian Fujito, Adam Finkelstein, and Lance Williams. Shadows for Cel Animation. In Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH 511-516 (2000). 

Perry Cook. Toward Physically Informed Parametric Synthesis of Sound Effects. IEEE Workshop on Applications of Signal Processing to Audio and Acoustics 1-5 (October 1999). 

Perry Cook and Daniel Trueman. Spherical Radiation from Stringed Instruments Measured, Modeled, and Reproduced. Journal of the Catgut Acoustical Society 3-15 (November 1999). 

Daniel Trueman and Perry Cook. BoSSA The Deconstructed Violin Reconstructed. Journal of New Music Research 29(2) 121-130 (2000). 

The successful integration of solar cells on textiles opens up a whole range of possible applications. Many of these applications would exploit the light weight, flexibility and conformability of textile fabrics. For example, they can be placed over curved surfaces in buildings, and be installed in spaces that would be otherwise inaccessible, such as in automotive, marine and aerospace equipment. Moreover, textile fabrics can be rolled up, transported to a desired location and then unrolled at that location. The technology would, therefore, be valuable to those living in remote areas, and could also be used to get power quickly to disaster areas, hit by earthquakes, hurricanes, floods or fire. 

Zabetakis, A. Stamelaki and T. Teloniati in Proceedings of a Conference on Fibrous Assemblies at the Design and Engineering Interface - INTERDEC, 2003, Edinburgh, UK. 

Mather and J.I.B. Wilson in Intelligent Textiles and Clothing, Ed., H.R. Mattila, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, UK, 2006, p.206. 

Shirai, Y. Sakuma, Y. Moriya, C. Fukai and H. Ueyama, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 1999, 38, 6629. 

Loffler, C. Devilee, M. Geusebroek, W.J. Soppe and H-J. Muffler in Proceedings of the 21 European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Dresden, Germany, 2006, p.l596. 

5 other Factors Controlling the Thermotropic Behavior of SCLCPs as Studied using Living Polymerizations Induction of Smectic Layering using Immiscible Components 

Although liquid crystals were discovered in 1888 [369], chemical concepts are only now being developed for converting the type of mesophase exhibited by a given chemical structure. Compounds which normally form only nematic mesophases can be forced to order into smectic layers by incorporating immiscible fluorocarbon units into their hydrocarbon chemical structure. Comparison of the data in Tables 7, 20 and 21 demonstrate that smectic layering is induced not only in low molar mass liquid crystals, but 

Additional well-defined side-chain liquid crystalline polymers should be synthesized by controlled polymerizations of mesogen-ic acrylates (anionic or free radical polymerizations), styrenes (anionic, cationic or free radical), vinyl pyridines (anionic), various heterocyclic monomers (anionic, cationic and metalloporphyrin-initiated), cyclobutenes (ROMP), and 7-oxanorbornenes and 7-oxanorbornadienes (ROMP). Ideally, the kinetics of these living polymerizations will be determined by measuring the individual rate constants for termination and 

III Molecular Engineering of Side Chain Liquid Crystalline Polymers 

We expect that the range of well-defined statistical copolymers will also increase, primarily to manipulate the phases formed and the transition temperatures of the corresponding homopolymers. 

The future of SIMS as an imaging method depends on instrumental and chemical developments. The progress will be focused on special instruments dedicated to very 

Vickerman and D. Briggs (eds.), TOF-SIMS Surface Analysis by Mass Spectrometry. Huddersfield, UK, IM Publications and Surface Spectra Limited, 2001. 

Szynkowska, and C. P. Norris (eds.), Focus on Surface Science Research. Huntington, NY Nova Science Publishers, 2005. 

Benninghoven, P. Bertrand, H. N. Migeon, and H. W. Wemer (eds.), Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, SIMS XII. Amsterdam Elsevier, 2000. 

Clinical tests are targeted to measure the concentration of different sets of compounds, such as small molecules (e.g., amino acids, fatty acids, organic acids, steroids) and peptides and proteins (e.g., thyroid stimulating hormone, hemoglobin A 1C) and oligonucleotides (e.g., DNA, RNA, SNPs). The presence, absence, or altered concentrations of a diagnostic compound or compounds may indicate the presence of a disease, type and severity of a disease, risk factors for disease, what is the basis for 

Holden A. The SNP consortium a case study in large pharmaceutical company research and development collaboration. J Commun Biotech 2000 6(4) 320-332. 

Cotton RG. Mutation detection and mutation databases. Clin Chem Lab Med 1998 36(8) 519-522. 

Schafer A, Hawkins JR. DNA variation and the future of human genetics. Nat Biotech 1998 16 33-39. 

Orita M, Iwahana H, Kanazawa H, Hayashi K, Sekiya T. Detection of polymorphisms of human DNA by gel electrophoresis as single-strand conformation polymorphisms. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989 86 2766-2770. 

Sommer SS. Restriction endonuclease fingerprinting (REF) a sensitive method for screening mutations in long, contiguous segments of DNA. Biotechniques 1995 18(3) 470-477. 

This protein then acts as an enzyme for the formation of cyclic AMP (Fig. 12.44). Normally, the active site is open when the nerve is receiving pain messages, such that cyclic AMP acts as a secondary messenger and passes on the pain messages. However, when the A receptor is activated it probably changes shape and as a result leads to a change in the shape of the cyclase enzyme to close down the active site by which it can make cyclic AMP (see also Appendix 3). 

This receptor is not an analgesic receptor, but we have seen that it can be activated by certain opiate molecules such as nalorphine. When activated, it produces hallucinogenic effects. The a receptor may be the one associated with the hallucinogenic and psychotomimetic effects of phencyclidine (PCP), otherwise known as angel dust (Fig. 12.45). 

There is still a need for analgesic drugs with reduced side-effects. Four approaches are feasible in the field of opiates. 

Such compounds should have much-reduced side-effects. However, a completely specific k agonist has not yet been found and there may be a close fink between the A receptor and the a receptor. Examples of selective agonists are shown in Fig. 12.46. 

There might be two slightly different x receptors, one of which is purely responsible for analgesia ( xa) and the other solely responsible for unwanted side-effects such as respiratory depression ( x2). An agent showing selectivity would prove such a theory and be very useful analgesic. 

Fortunately, the rewards of research are complementary, and whatever direction or thrust a particular spectroelectrochemical project may take, several fields of science ultimately may benefit. The interchange of knowledge and ideas in electrochemistry and surface science at the analytical-physical interface, for example, is notable. Such progress offers a better understanding of electrochemical processes through theoretical advances and experimental discovery or validation, by both pure and applied motivation. These new electroanalytical techniques permit reevaluation of important practical electrochemical systems such as corrosion mechanisms, biochemical redox intermediates, kinetic and catalytic processes of analytical and chemicals production importance, and optical devices. Spectroelectrochemistry continues to be an exciting and challenging field in which to work. 

Yeager, in Non-Traditional Approaches to the Study of the Solid-Electrolyte Interface (T. E. Furtak, K. L. KJiewer, and D. W. Lynch, eds.), p. 1, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam (1980). 

Bard and L. R. Faulkner, Electrochemical Methods, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1980), p. 577. 

Our analysis of the control of plant development, including hormonal controls, is probably closer to its beginning than its completion, and a clearer picture 

Abeles FB (1973) Ethylene in plant biology. Academic Press, London New York 

Addicott FT, Lynch RS (1955) Physiology of abscission. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 6 211-238 

Amrhein N (1977) The current status of cyclic AMP in higher plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 28 123-132 

Audus LJ (1959) Plant growth substances. Interscience, New York 

Looking ahead towards the turn of the century it is logical to divide the world s chemical industries into two categories, as indicated above the well-established, mature ones such as those in North America and Western Europe, and those in countries just starting, or continuing their industrialization. 

Due to the difficulty in competing with these developing countries in terms of raw material costs we can expect European, Japanese and U.S. companies to continue to move further downstream in petrochemicals, where they can use their greater technical skill, expertise, and experience. This is already evident in polymers, where the only profitable area is speciality polymers which require the above attributes for their production. Finally, the availability of feedstocks for organic chemicals as oil reserves diminish will also have an influence, but this is difficult to predict. The influence of the communist block is similarly difficult to predict but the construction of a pipeline to transport natural gas from Russia to Germany has been completed. Reports that Russia may become a major oil exporter (as its large reserves of natural gas are tapped) are being 

As ever, the difficulty for the industry is to balance capacity with expected demand, although the latter is extremely difficult to predict even 5 years ahead because it is so strongly affected by the world s economy which is very cyclical with a boom inevitably followed by a slump. The diversity of experts views clearly illustrates the difficulties. Views on ethylene in the mid 1990s range from predictions of significant over-capacity in Europe to a worldwide shortage. Clearly the actual outcome depends on how the market for this product expands (or contracts). 

The Liverpool Section of the Society of Chemical Industry 1881-1981 A Centennial History, D. Broad, Society of Chemical Industry, 1983. 

ReigeTs Handbook of Industrial Chemistry, 8th edn, ed. James A. Kent. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983, p. 363. 

What will the future bring Certainly whilst the use of curable rubbers may grow as more of the world becomes developed, it will not grow at the same rate as the usage of elastomeric materials generally. Thermoplastic elastomers, as their properties are improved, will replace eurable elastomers in many areas currently the preserve of the cured materials. 

The effects this will have on the compounding of rubbers will be that more and more continuous mixing plants are commissioned, and fewer batch mixing plants. Continuous mixing of vulcanisable materials is also likely to see some inerease, particularly in the tyre sector as the smaller tyre eell production imits replace the present large tyre factories. 

What about the machinery The proliferation of different rotors made available for batch mixers over the last few years leads one to believe that this part of the industry is in its infancy, rather than approaching old age. It is likely that further designs will appear, but some specialisation may creep in where particular rotor designs are matched to particular parts of the industry. In continuous mixing machinery, the corotating twin-screw machine appears, at last, to be achieving inroads into the rubber industry, and this is likely to continue. Other continuous compounding machines which have had a measure of success in the past are likely to be reintroduced in modified form, particularly those, like the MVX, which were shown capable of outputs in terms of tonnes per hour. 

Rubber compounds are showing no signs of simplification therefore the influence of black art looks set to continue for many years to come, and for that, if for no other reason, the rubber technologists of the future will be able to give their heartfelt thanks. 

It is hopefully evident from the above discussions that regulations governing the API are continuing to evolve. At this time. 

With regard to the future of bioceramics and implants in general, 

Many articles have been written on the demand for implants. It is difficult to estimate the market. The most popular implants are likely to be hip, knee, finger, dental root, heart valve, pacemakers and jaw reinforcement. Worldwide the demand is 100,000 heart valves, 220,000 pacemakers, 400,000 hip prostheses and 1,500,000 blood vessel prostheses. 

It is believed that in future the use of bio-materials as far as composites and ceramics are concerned will grow and exceed the application of metal and plastics. 

Norian SRS bone mineral substitute is injected directly into osteoporotic and other traumatic fracture sites, filling the bone void. Hardening in minutes, Norian SRS is a patented formulation that forms carbonaated apatite - the main contituent of natural bone - in the patient s body (Illustration courtesy of Norian Corporation, Cupertino, USA). 

A language barrier should not stand in the way of hazard communication. In some ways, a precedent has already been set vis-a-vis the four-digit placard. This placard, without the use of words, communicates the symbol, color and class number. The four-digit UN number simply identifies the specific commodity. Is the white flame on a red background with Class Number 3 any less a Flammable Liquid label than with the use of those words Or, is the green label with the white cylinder and Class Number 2 any less a Non-Flammable Gas There will be those who will object to the additional training necessary in a world without words. It is suggested that such a step will not be as difficult as it may appear, and further, it will promote safety and economic benefits in both international and domestic trade. 

Transport of Dangerous Goods Recommendations Prepared by the United Nations Committee of Experts (U.N. Orange Book), Second Revised Ed., Chicago Intereg (1982). 

ICAO Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, International Civil Aviation Organization (1984) Available in English, Spanish, French and Russian. Chicago Interleg 

lATA 24th Edition Dangerous Goods Regulations, Consolidated Version Montreal International Civil Aviation Organization. 

Title 49 Code of Federal Regulations Parts 100-199 Transportation of Hazardous Materials, Washington, DC General Services Administration (1982). 

Coal analysis has, by convention, involved the use of wet analysis or the use of typical laboratory bench-scale apparatus. This trend continues and may continue for another decade or two. But the introduction of microprocessors and microcomputers in recent years has led to the development of a new generation of instruments for coal analysis as well as the necessary calibration of such instruments (ASTM D-5373). In particular, automated instrumentation has been introduced that can determine moisture, ash, volatile matter, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and ash fusion temperatures in a fraction of the time required to complete most standard laboratory bench procedures. 

Several such instruments have been developed for the simultaneous determination of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in various samples. Of course, basic requirements for the instruments are that they provide for the complete conversion of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in coal to carbon dioxide, water vapor, and elemental nitrogen, and for the quantitative determination of these gases in an appropriate gas stream. 

Most methods used by the new analytical all-in-one instruments are empirical, and the accuracy of the results is highly dependent on the quality and suitability of the standards used to standardize the instruments. 

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 05.06. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA. Specifically  

ASTM D-346. Standard Practice for Collection and Preparation of Coke Samples for Laboratory Analysis. 

In terms of cost, in Table 13.1 we compare the costs of the current state of the art 

In contrast, we present in Table 13.2 the potential cost based on phase fluorometry. We have not broken our analysis down by analyte, as one instrument may be sufficient for several analytes. This may be an advantage of our generic core technology whose superior value will become even more compelling as new probes are synthesized for other analytes. 

Off-gases (02, CO2) Total Mass spectrometer 30,000-60,000 40,500-70,500 Dycor, Perkin-Elmer 

Hardware Cost (estimates) Footprint size (sq feet) 

We are optimistic about the future of this field, because so much interesting work is present even though only a small fraction of polymer science is represented. We are confident that, as more polymeric systems are explored with the tools of nonhnear dynamics, more exciting and unusual phenomena will be discovered. 

We hope this volume will inspire the reader to begin or continue with this new area of research. 

Epstein, I.R. and Pojman, J.A. (1999) Overview nonlinear dynamics related to polymeric systems. Chaos, 9, 255-259. 

Khokhlov, A.R., Tran-Cong-Miyata, Q., Davydov, V.A., Kuchanov S.I., and Yamaguchi T. (eds) (2000) Nonlinear Dy- 

Improved targeting of pesticide monitoring will require the development of new analytical techniques and EQSs for priority pesticides to determine their environmental significance. To ensure confidence in the monitoring data, analytical techniques need to be able to detect the pesticide at 1/lOth of the EQS, which can be as low as 1 ngPk 

Until recently, the NRA has not participated during the approval process in assessing the potential environmental impact of pesticides. However, the NRA does supply monitoring data to MAFF and HSE for pesticide reviews. These occur once a pesticide has been approved for use for a certain length of time, or when further information is needed on an approved pesticide. In supplying these data, the NRA comments on any areas of concern. This contributed to the 1993 ban on the use of atrazine and simazine on non-cropped land. In January 1995 the NRA s National Centre for Toxic and Persistent Substances (TAPS) was made advisor to the DoF, on the potential impact on the aquatic environment of 

The full extent of the toxicity of pesticides to aquatic life is not known. Although chronic toxicity testing is required for new substances, little is known about the long-term effects of older pesticides. Also, very little is known about the toxicity and occurrence of the products formed when pesticides break down (metabolites) or the many non-pesticidal additives (co-formulants and adjuvants) used in pesticide formulations. However, the future is looking brighter. New modelling techniques, EQS development, and the involvement of the NRA in the pesticide registration process, coupled with the development of newer, less persistent pesticides with lower dose rates, all should help to reduce the risk of pesticide pollution. 

A recent paper1 addressed the future of computer validation. The authors of this paper anticipated how the current industry events and trends would affect computer validation. 

Technology is one of many trends constantly affecting computer validation. One area requiring special attention is the introduction of expert systems into the FDA-regulated environment. The simplest form of artificial intelligence generally used in applications (such as mortgages, credit card authorization, fraud detection, e-commerce, personalization) is the rule-based system, also known as the expert system (ES). 

Expert systems differ from standard procedural or object-oriented programs in that there is no clear order in which code executes. Instead, the knowledge of the expert is captured in a set of rules, each of which encodes a small piece of the expert s knowledge. Each rule has a left-hand side and a right-hand side. 

The left-hand side contains information about certain facts and objects that must be true in order for the rule to potentially be executed. Any rules whose left-hand sides match in this manner at a given time are placed on an agenda. 

Because the actions of the rale-based system tend to be hidden from view, people tend not to realize just how extensively they are used. 

Remarkable selectivity of action has now been achieved in some cases, such as the herbicides controlling the pest wild oats in cereal crops, and insecticides like Menazon attacking aphids but not bees and ladybirds. The increasing attention to selectiveness in activity also promises to reduce problems of resistance and cross-resistance which have been encountered with broad-spectrum pesticides like DDT and the organophosphates. 

Annual Review of the Chemical Industry 1979, Economic Commission for Europe (ECE/CHEM/34), Table 86. 

British Agrochemicals Association, Annual Report and Handbook, 1983-4. 

Chemicals for Crop Protection and Pest Control, M. B. Green, G. S. Hartley and T. F. West, Pergamon, 1977, 10. 

Recent developments in the chemistry of azole fungicides, P. A. Worthington, in Proc. Br. Crop Prot. Conf. Pests Dis., 1984, 3, 955. 

Zeolites have also been used as raw materials for ceramic compositions relevant to the electronic industry. Bedard et al. reported the high-temperature processing of zeolite B (P) to form cordierite ceramic compositions [90]. 

World produchon of natural zeolites was estimated at about 3.0 x 10 t in 2008 [22]. China and Cuba consume the largest quanhty of natural zeolites, largely to enhance the strength of cement [22], 

The price of zeolites varies considerably depending on the apphcation. The typical price of catalysts in the United States varies from about US 3 /kg for FCC to about US 20/kg for specialty catalysts, adsorbents from about US 5-9/ kg, up to tens of dollars per kilogram for specialty adsorbents and about US 2/ kg for detergents. Natural zeolites in bulk applications sell for US 0.04—0.25/kg and in industrial adsorbent applications for US 1.50-3.50/kg [22]. 

As noted previously there has been an explosive and accelerating increase in the discovery of new compositions and structural topologies. Based on the very high achvity in this area in the past quarter of a century, we can expect a continuation 

Among the new application areas that could become large volume applications are the use of molecular sieves as functional powders, in odor removal, as plastic additives and in composites. The use of zeolites in solid-state applications is highly speculative. If ever practically realized that application would most probably represent a relatively small volume of the total zeolite consumption. 

Although coupled transport has been known for many years, it has only oeen under active development since the mid-1960s. In the laboratory, the process can perform a number of useful separations, but the process has yet to prove itself industrially. The principal problems are related to the stability of the liquid membranes, leading to poor economics either because of loss of reagents or replacement of the support membranes. If these problems can be solved, the process may find industrially important applications. 

and Sollner, K., Carrier Mechanisms in the Movement of Ions 

Across Porous and Liquid Ion Exchanger Membranes, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 137, 759 (1966). 

Proceedings of Membrane Science and Technology, Columbus Laboratories of Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1969, Plenum Press (1970). 

and Marian, S.,J. inorg. Nucl. Chem., 31, 

ES-62 is a large and hence immunogenic molecule whose posttranslational addition of PC is dependent on a nematode-spedfic pathway. For these reasons, it is not suitable for use as drug. However, small PC-based derivatives oflFer a viable alternative. Towards this end we have shown that small PC-containii molecules (e.g., PC- cans) can mimic some of the activities of ES-62 in vitro. The next step will be to demonstrate that the same is true with respect to ES-62 s anti-inflammatory activity in vivo. 

Sewell DL, Reinkc EK, Hogan LH ct aL Inununoregulation of CNS autoimmunity by helminth and mycobacterial infections. Immunol Lett 2002 82(1-2) 101-110. 

Brighton P, Solomon L, Valkenburg HA. Rheumatoid arthritis in a rural south afeican negro population. Ann Rheum Dis 1975 34(2) 136-141. 

Dunne DW, Cooke A. A worms eye view of the immune system consequences fot evolution of human autoimmune disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2005 5(5) 420-426. 

Maizek RM. Infections and allergy—helminths, hygiene and host immune regulation. Curt Opin Immunol 2005 17(6) 656-661. 

If one is to build a plant based upon renewables or on remote natural gas associated with oil production, one must consider a small (1000-5000 bbl/day) plant. The availability of renewables 

Company Site Capacity bpd Raw material Start-up date 

The microchannel (small channel) reactor is ideally suited for small-scale operations. As of this date, it has not moved beyond the pilot plant stage. However, Velocys has recently announced an agreement for sale of a 175 bbl/day reactor, together with their catalyst, to a customer in the Commonwealth of Independent States. They also indicate that they have been selected to provide the reactor for a 2800 bbl/day plant located in Ohio that will utilize natural gas from shale deposits in that region. 

It would appear that further increases in the size of the FT reactor must await the construction of larger manufecturing and transportation capabilities. The cost of one, or even two. 

Furnsinn [137] has discussed at length means of overcoming the perception of the impossibility of utilizing small-scale reactors for FT synthesis. He concluded that it was possible to achieve both high yields and high overall efficiency at the small scale. He reached the conclusion that for atmospheric steam generation, one needs to utilize atmospheric pressure FT synthesis. 

Paradoxically, because interest in modem ceramics came later than interest in metals and polymers, ceramics are simultaneously our oldest and newest solids. Consequently, working in the field of ceramics, while sometimes frustrating, can ultimately be quite rewarding and exciting. There are a multitude of compounds that have never been synthesized, let alone characterized. Amazing discoveries are always around the corner, as the following two examples illustrate. 

In 1986, the highest temperature at which any material became superconducting, i.e., the ability to conduct electricity with virtually no loss, was around —250°C, or 23 K. In that year a breakthrough came when Bednorz and Muller, shattered the record by demonstrating that a layered lanthanum, strontium copper oxide became superconducting at the relatively balmy temperature of 46 K. This discovery provoked a worldwide interest in the subject, and a few months later the record was again almost doubled, to about 90 K. The record today is in excess of 120 K. 

Toward the end of 1995, we identified a new class of solids best described as machinable, thermodynamically stable polycrystalline nanolaminates (Fig. 1.4a). These solids are ternary layered hexagonal carbides and nitrides with the general formula, M + AX , where = 1 to 3, M is an early transition metal, A is an A-group element (mostly IlIA and IVA) and X is C and or 

To date we identified more than 50 of these compounds. 

Thermally, elastically, chemically and electrically they share many of the advantageous attributes of their respective stoichiometric binary transition metal carbides or nitrides they are electrically and thermally conductive, chemically stable. Mechanically they cannot be more different, however they are most readily machinable (Fig. 1.4b) and relatively soft. It is the ability of the basal planes to readily delaminate from each other, instead of fracturing, that renders them unique and why they have been labeled nanolaminates (Fig. 1.4a). 

Soft drinks fonnulators today have a greater choice of bulk and intense sweeteners than ever before. Optimisation of die taste profile of drinks containing sweeteners has improved significantly over the last 20 years. This may limit the opportunities for some of the newer sweeteners, as additional taste improvement will be incremental, compared with the substantial taste improvements seen in the early 1980s, when several new sweeteners were approved. 

Ajinomoto Aspartame Technical Bulletin (2003). Bakal, A.I. (1983) Chemistry and Industry, 18, 700. Bakal, A.I. (1987) Food Technology 1, 117. Bartoshuk, L.M. (1979) Science 205, 934. 

Beesley, P.M. (1990) Carbohydrate sugars, in Formulation and Production of Carbonated Soft Drinks (ed. A.J. Mitchell), Blackie Press, Glasgow. 

Beghin Meiji (2001) Actilighl — The White Book — Introducing the World s First Health Ingredient (19). 

Cargill (2003) Ascend a Step Faster a Step Forward, Cargill Health and Food Technologies, Minneapolis, USA. 

Nuts have been a source of energy (fats) for man and beasts since antiquity and will continue to be eaten in the future. They fit into the natural pattern of nutrition that has changed little through the centuries. Plant breeders and genetic engineers will continue to make minor changes in the quantity and quality of nuts. 

It is reported that a biotechnology company in California, Calgene, Inc., has genetically altered plant enzymes to reduce the amount of saturated fats in vegetable oils. While cultivated peanuts contain an 

The ramifications of nanotechnology in the food arena have yet to be fully realized. This requires further research into biopolymer assembly behavior and applications of nanomaterials in the food industry. Researchers should keep abreast of the development of research tools and what is being done to push resolution limits for techniques such as atomic force spectroscopy or the synchrotron coupled to various spectroscopic techniques and higher resolution microscopy. New techniques should be exploited and the knowledge gained used to understand the dynamics and interactions of food materials at the single-molecule level and to describe assembly behavior in quantitative thermodynamic terms. There are questions about the interactions of nanoparticles with the food matrix and within the human body. These questions need to be addressed by future research (Simon and Joner, 2008 Sletmoen et ah, 2008). 

Further research is required on nanoscale structures and methods that can be used to control the interactions between molecules to enable 

Kikkawa, M. Shimura and N. Tanaka, J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans. 894 (1981). 

The eventual proportions of Cr + and CrCF+ formed will depend on the concentrations and formation constant of CrCF+. 

The data for this Table are taken from the compilations in B36 and in the Selected Bibliography in Chap. 4. 

The reaction of Fe + with Fe(phen)3+ is considered to be an outer-sphere reaction because of the inertness of the Fe(III) complex. Marked effects of anions on the rate have been interpreted however 

A large positive AV is associated with the internal electron transfer within the outer-sphere complex between Co(NH3)5X + and Fe(CN). I. Krack and R. van Eldik, Inorg. Chem. 25, 1743 (1986) Y. Sasaki, K. Endo, A. Nagasawa and K. Saito, Inorg. Chem. 25, 4845 (1986). This value is not easy to interpret. 

Staudinger, H., Die Hochmolekularen Organischen Verbindungen, Kautschuk und Cellulose, Springer, Berlin, 1932. 

DeBell, J. M., Goggin, W. C. and Gloor, W. E., German Plastics Practice, Debell and Richardson, Springfield, MA, 1946. 

Frisch, K. C., History of Science and Technology of Polymeric Foams , in History of Polymer Science and Technology, eds. Seymour, R. B., Marcel Dekker, New York (1982). 

Pavelich, W. A., A Path to ABS Thermoplastics , in High Performance Polymers Their Origin and Development, ed. Seymour, R. B. and Kirshenbaum, G. S., Elsevier, New York, p. 125 (1986). 

Albaugh KB, Cade PE, Rasmussen D. Mechanism of anodic bonding of silicon to Pyrex glass. Tech Dig. IEEE Solid-State Sens. Actuator Workshop. Hilton Head, SC, 1988 109-10. 

Angell JB, Terry SC, Barth PW. Silicon micromechanical devices. Sci Am 1983 248 44-55. 

Auroux PA, Lossifidis D, Reyes DR, Manz A. Micro total analysis systems. 2. Analytical standard operations and applications. Anal Chem 2002 74 2637-52. 

Belgrade P, Benett W, Hadley D, Long G, Marieila RJ Milanovich F, et al. Rapid pathogen detection using a microchip PCR array instrument. Chn Chem 1998 44 2191-4. 

Bellows G, Kohls JB. DritLuig without drills. Am Mach Special Rep 1982 743 173-88. 

Acree and J. Barnard, Gas chromatography-olfactory and charm analysis, Dev. Food Sci., 1994, 35, 211-220. 

Bicchi and D. Joulain, Review Headspace-gas chromatographic analysis of medicinal and aromatic plants and flowers, Flav. Frag. J., 1990, 5, 131-145. 

Boelens and L. J. Van Gemert, Characterization and sensory properties of volatile nitrogen compounds from natural isolates, Perfumer and Flavorist, 1994,19(5), 51-52,54-55,58,60,62-65. 

Hinshaw and L. Ettre, Open Tubular Column Gas Chromatography, 

Hostettman, M. Hostettman and A. Marston, Preparative Chromatography Techniques, Springer, 1986. 

Unfortunately, sometimes a new design concept is not accepted or may simply be ahead of its time. In 1483 Leonardo da Vinci designed what he called a spiral screw 

Advanced Materials Processes. ASM International, Metals Park, OH 44073. Canadian Plastics. 1450 Don Mills Rd., Don Mills, Ont., Canada M3B 2X7. 

Chemical Engineering. 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Chemical Marketing Reporter. 100 Church St., New York, NY 10007. 

European Plastics News. 33-39 Bowling Green Lane, London ECIR ONE, England. European Polymer Journal. Fairwell Pk., Elmsford, NY 10523. 

Kunststoffe. C. Hanser Verlag, Munich, Postfach 86 04 20, 8000 Munchen 86, Germany. Machine Design. 1100 Superior Ave., Cleveland, OH 44114. 

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After the first year, the future worth F of the capital cost present value P is given by... 

The future worth of the second annual payment after (n - 2) years is... 

Net present value (NPV). Since money can be invested to earn interest, money received now has a greater present value than money received at some time in the future. The net present value of a project is the sum of the present values of each individual cash flow. In this case, the present is taken to be the start of a project. 

Chemical processes will in the future need to be designed as part of a sustainable industrial development which retains the capacity of ecosystems to support industrial activity and life. This book therefore places a high emphasis on waste minimization and energy efficiency in the context of good economic performance and good health and safety practices. 

As we have shown previously, obtaining both good cold operation characteristics and sufficient cetane numbers constitutes the principal objective for the refiner in the formulation of diesel fuel. To this is added the need for deep desulfurization and, perhaps in the future, limitations placed on the chemical nature of the components themselves, e.g., aromatics content. 

In the future it will be difficult to avoid deterioration of certain characteristics such as viscosity, asphaltene and sediment contents, and cetane number. The users must employ more sophisticated technological means to obtain acceptable performance. Another approach could be to diversify the formulation of heavy fuel according to end use. Certain consuming plants require very high quality fuels while others can accept a lower quality. 

In the future, European and worldwide refining should evolve toward the production of relatively high cetane number diesel fuels either by more or less deeper hydrotreating or by judicious choice of base stocks. However, it is not planned to achieve levels of 60 for the near future as sometimes required by the automotive manufacturers. 

A second series of additives comprises those that improve the octane number (see Chapter 5). We will examine in succession the role played by these additives, substances currently used, and the future prospects concerning additives in this area. 

These respective choices are dictated by our current knowledge, the state of the art in research and the projection of specifications in the future. 

In the future, it is expected to be possible to make more routine use of additional wave types, specifically shear or S waves (polarised to horizontal and vertical components) which have a transverse mode of propagation, and are sensitive to a different set of rock properties than P waves. The potential then exists for increasing the number of independent attributes measured in reflection surveys and increasing the resolution of the subsurface image. 

A site survey will be carried out, from which a number of parameters can be established, e.g. carrying capacity of the soil at the planned location, possible access routes, surface restrictions like built-up areas, lakes, nature reserves, the general topography, possible water supplies. The survey will allow the adequate preparation of the future location. For instance, onshore in a swamp area the soil needs to be covered with support mats. 

The environmental performance of companies within the industry is normally subject to the legislative requirements of the host government, but is increasingly becoming scrutinised by the public, as available information and general levels of awareness increase. Major companies see responsible management of the environmental aspects of their operations as crucial to the future of their business. The approval of loans from major banks for project finance is usually conditional on acceptable environmental management. 

The volumetries of a field, along with the anticipated recovery factors, control the reserves in the field those hydrocarbons which will be produced in the future. The value of an oil or gas company lies predominantly in its hydrocarbon reserves which are used by shareholders and investors as one indication of the strength of the company, both at present and in the future. A reliable estimate of the reserves of a company is therefore important to the current value as well as the longer term prospects of an oil or gas company. 

On the other hand, some works (7) use the wavelets theory to analyze and segment the same images. In the future, we plan to develop these mathematics tools necessary for this work. 

The use of complex scaimers and scatmers "tailormade" for scanning of special components will be increasingly important in the future. The system shall therefore support all scanner types, from simple X-Y scanners to multiaxes robots and have facilities to configure and... 

In order to assure that the 3D inspection system concept also in the future fulfills all the requirements for a 3D inspection system for complex geometry, the system is constantly developed and extended with new and powerful facilities. Some options assumed to be implemented in near future are ... 

From the technical and practical points of view, the efficient monitoring of rivers and water basins is a very difficult problem. This is due to the fact, that it is necessary not only to carry out a big number of water condition parameters measurements, but to follow the physical-chemical changes going on in the water as well. Such changes have a strong influence on the future state of the water basins. 

This standard proposal is limited to a format model. So, as it had been pointed out earlier, the implementation of this format requires some complementary work, which can partly be standardized. The definition of the Application Programming Interfaces (A.P.l.) could become a standard in the future. Nonetheless, this would require the creation of a new ad hoc group, with different technical competences. 

While professional awareness has increased, there are still hindrances to universal access in the workplace. Today almost all companies have access to the Internet, but company policy may limit usage during business hours or on company equipment Also, many countries still face prohibitive online access charges, although free market competition will take care of that in time, and Canada s no-charge policy may well be the wave of the future ... 

B1.18.5.7 THE FUTURE RESOLUTION BEYOND THE DIFFRACTION LIMIT IN CONFOCAL FLUORESCENCE... 

Clusters are intennediates bridging the properties of the atoms and the bulk. They can be viewed as novel molecules, but different from ordinary molecules, in that they can have various compositions and multiple shapes. Bare clusters are usually quite reactive and unstable against aggregation and have to be studied in vacuum or inert matrices. Interest in clusters comes from a wide range of fields. Clusters are used as models to investigate surface and bulk properties [2]. Since most catalysts are dispersed metal particles [3], isolated clusters provide ideal systems to understand catalytic mechanisms. The versatility of their shapes and compositions make clusters novel molecular systems to extend our concept of chemical bonding, stmcture and dynamics. Stable clusters or passivated clusters can be used as building blocks for new materials or new electronic devices [4] and this aspect has now led to a whole new direction of research into nanoparticles and quantum dots (see chapter C2.17). As the size of electronic devices approaches ever smaller dimensions [5], the new chemical and physical properties of clusters will be relevant to the future of the electronics industry. 

Moore G 1980 VLSI, what does the future hold Eiectron. Aust. 42 14... 

At the present time, the solution of the electronic structure problem using full four component wave functions is far from routine [38]. In the future, as progress is made in this area, extension of the present approach to full four component wave functions can be expected. 

Thus one must rely on macroscopic theories and empirical adjustments for the determination of potentials of mean force. Such empirical adjustments use free energy data as solubilities, partition coefficients, virial coefficients, phase diagrams, etc., while the frictional terms are derived from diffusion coefficients and macroscopic theories for hydrodynamic interactions. In this whole field of enquiry progress is slow and much work (and thought ) will be needed in the future. 

In spite of the three methods of estimating open question that needs to be investigated further in the future. The above expressions are order of magnitude estimates and not exact formulas. 

Drug design is at present by far the major playground of chemoinformatics. This situation will certainly change in the future. 

A molecular system at room temperature is accurately characterized hy its tnoLiori. Molecular dynamics simulations calculate the future position s an d velocities of atom s based upon their current values. You can obtain qiialitative and quantitative data from HyperCh etn molecular dytiatn ics sirn ulation s. 

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