Special instruments

Several special categories of spot-measuring instruments are worth mentioning, although they may, by strict definihon, fit into one or more of the above categories. 

Another special case is the fiber optic-coupled thermometer, which allows inaccessible targets to be measured by replacing the optic with a flexible or rigid fiber optic bundle. This, of course, limits the spectral performance, and hence the temperature range, to the higher values, but it has allowed temperature measurements to be made when previously none were possible. 

Another special application instrument known as the laser pyrometer incorporates a built-in laser projection system and uses the reflected energy of the active laser to measure target reflectance. A built-in microcomputer calculates target emissivity based on the measured reflectance and uses this to provide a corrected true temperature reading. The laser pyrometer is useful for high-temperature diffuse target surfaces. 

Prices of instruments in the on-line control instrument group vary from less than 1,000 for an switch to more than 15,000 for on-line instruments equipped 

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Recently ultrasonic spectroscopy has become a more common NDE technique and specialized instruments are commercially available now for inspection of aerospace structures, ball bearings, and even concrete [2],[3]. 

In MSIA Spectrum developed and manufactured commercial version of specialized instruments that may be classified like equipment for criminology. With the help of such equipment... 

Special instruments (isotope ratio mass spectrometers) are used to determine isotope ratios, when needed, to better than about 3%. Such special instruments are described in Chapters 6, 7, and 48. The methods of ionization and analysis for such precise measurements are not described here. 

Special instruments (isotope ratio mass spectrometers) are needed to measure the required very accurate, precise ratios of abundances. 

Apart from the need for a specialized instrument, sample preparation before analysis is extremely important for reliable results. The sample preparation must not itself alter the ratios of isotopes in the samples under investigation. 

The current and past operation should be compared so that the timing of the observed problems is estabhshed. The possible causes (hypotheses) can be compared against the measurements found on the log sheets. The number of possible causes can then be reduced. When the quantity or quahty or measurements is insufficient to further reduce the set of causes, additional measurements are required. These may require special instruments (e.g., gamma-ray scanning) not routinely usedin the plant. Alternative operating conmtions may also be required to further reduce the number of causes. As part of the problem identification, it is alwavs important to look for measurements that are inconsistent with the proposed explanation. They will be more informative than the ones justifying the hypothesized cause. Ultimately, with appropriate additional measurements, the cause can be identified. This is not an exact science and, as stated above, relies heavily upon the communication, technical, and investigative skills of analysts. 

Further chapters cover in detail the characteristics and applications of galvanic anodes and of cathodic protection rectifiers, including specialized instruments for stray current protection and impressed current anodes. The fields of application discussed are buried pipelines storage tanks tank farms telephone, power and gas-pressurized cables ships harbor installations and the internal protection of water tanks and industrial plants. A separate chapter deals with the problems of high-tension effects on pipelines and cables. A study of costs and economic factors concludes the discussion. The appendix contains those tables and mathematical derivations which appeared appropriate for practical purposes and for rounding off the subject. 

Typically, no with specialized instruments (e.g., low-energy electron microscopy), 150 A... 

As time goes on, the ultimate resolution of the SEM operated in these modes will probably level out near 1 nm. The major growth of SEMs now seems to be in the development of specialized instruments. An environmental SEM has been developed that uses differential pumping to permit the observation of specimens at higher pressures. Photographs of the formation of ice crystals have been taken and the instrument has particular application to samples that are not vacuum compatible, such as biological samples. 

All exterior hoods should be evaluated regularly. The evaluation procedures can be divided into detailed and simple procedures. Detailed procedures need special instruments and competence, whereas simple procedures may be performed daily. Since simple procedures do not directly measure the performance of the exhaust, it is usually necessary to calibrate them using detailed procedures. 

PRESSURE [T] TEMPERATURE A ESTIMATED FI OW FLOW (SPECIAL INSTRUMENTATION)... 

A modem technique for nitrogen detn is known as fast neutron activation analysis. Materials such as RDX are exposed to a high density fast neutron flux which converts the 14N content of the sample into unstable 13N. The N is detd by measuring the 13 N produced by the 14N (n, 2n) 13N reaction. This technique is extremely sensitive, but requires specialized instrumentation (Refs 44, 51 61)... 

The study of reactions with rates that He outside the time frame of ordinary laboratory operations requires specialized instrumentation and techniques. This chapter presents the wide range of methods currently in use for very fast reactions. Extraordinarily slow reactions, on the other hand, have received very little attention. For them, one may resort to measuring a tiny concentration of product over normal times, as in the method of initial rates. 

Besides the above-mentioned titration methods, some special instrumentical analytical ones were established in recent years. A big advantage lies in the fact that single components can be detected even in complex mixtures by using chromatographic methods. Gas chromatography fails to analyze nonvolatile surfactant molecules. To get volatile components, chemical manipulations have to be... 

Cryosurgery is a method of therapy in which specialized instrumentation is used to achieve the in situ destruction of tumorous tissue by freezing. This surgical specialty has been accepted as standard procedures in such disciplines as derma-... 

The first version of a polarographic technique was put forward in 1922 by the Czech scientist Jaroslav Heyrovsky. Classsical polarography is the measurement of quasisteady-state polarization curves with linear potential scans applied to the DME sufficiently slowly (v between 1 and 20mV/s), so that within the lifetime, of an individual drop, the potential would not change by more than 3 to 5 mV. With special instruments (polarographs), one can record the resulting 7 vs. E curves (polaro-grams) automatically. 

The experimental approaches used to characterize ion-pair partitioning are cyclic voltammetry and potentiometric titration. Cyclic voltammetry is overall more powerful, but requires special instrumentation which is not commercially available as a ready-to-use set-up. For this reason the potentiometric titration technique has been more widely used. 

Both the infrared spectroscopic method and the polarographic method require special instruments. When instruments for both are available, the latter method seems to be preferred. Neither method has been found to be applicable to spray residues. 

Matrixes Three types of paper filters (i). Filtrak, Germany, the filter Number 388 [(0.025) - soft, wide pores] filters No. 90 (0.15) and No. 90 (0.25) - dense, narrow pores) (ii). chromatographic papers FN-5, FN-11 (Germany) the kapron membrane (pore size 0.2 microns) and (iii). the membrane Vladipor MFA-MA No. 6 (Kazan industrial associations Tasma )] were applied to matrixes for biotests. The circles (6 -10 mm dia) are cut out from the matrixes materials by special instrument. The most stable results are received with use of matrixes of chromatographic papers FN-5, FN-11. 

The future of SIMS as an imaging method depends on instrumental and chemical developments. The progress will be focused on special instruments dedicated to very... 

The purpose of this paper was to briefly describe fundamentals of isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), review the analytical systems currently available both for traditional dual-inlet (DI-IRMS) and the newer continuous-flow (CF-IRMS) and describe the specialized instruments that are in general use for isotopic measurements. 

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