Other applications

Other possible military- and homeland security-related uses are as follows  

Sprayable surfactant-water solution wherein the surfactant has labeled moieties. The solution is sprayed over a wide area of ground. If the ground surface is disturbed, the absence of the label from the surfactant can be detected, indicating the possibility that mines, lEDs, EFPs, etc., might have been planted on the disturbed ground surface. 

Carriers for sensor labels to probe underground structures, if a portion of the multipolymeric surfactant is labeled or if the surfactant-water solution is used to displace/carry another fluid containing labeled molecules. Thus, underground structures can be mapped before and after an event. 

Reinforcement of fortiflcations by filling pores of wood, masonry, etc., with protecting gel/cement. 

Protection from chemical, biological, and nuclear attack, again by tilling pores from wood, masonry, dry walls, and even the ground material (soil, masonry, etc.). 

Other applications mentioned in the literature include hydrogen waste streams, syngas from integrated gasifier combined cycle (IGCC), nonstationary, or military applications, and natural gas depressurization. 

Waste or by-product streams rich in hydrogen occur in several petrochemical and electrochemical processes, such as chlor-alkali electrolysis and electroplating. When no chemical use for the hydrogen is possible, its conversion to electricity can be performed in an MCFC the good co-generation opportunities typically found in industrial environments should make MCFCs preferable to other FC technologies. 

Syngas from an IGCC can be used as fuel for an MCFC the integration with such a complex plant offers several options for optimization. A pilot-scale MCFC power plant that can be installed side-by-side with an existing IGCC plant has been proposed [64]. 

Mobile applications of MCFCs have only been envisaged in the naval sector for ships and mititary submarines. Possible maritime fuels are liquefied natural gas (LNG), diesel, and kerosene the desulfurization step is critical as some of these fuels have high sulfur contents. An MCFC can provide a ship-board electric energy (auxiliary power unit, APU), while the conventional internal combustion engine provides mechanical energy the challenge of feeding the MCFC system with available fuels (marine diesel and kerosene) has been the topic of the EU-funded MC-WAP FP6 Project (MCFCs for Waterborne Application) [65]. 

Military applications envisage the deployment of MCFCs to supply the energy required to recharge portable electronic appliances in the battlefield in this context the low-noise and highly efficient operation of MCFC power generation is invaluable. The easier logistics of liquid fuels has oriented research towards adapting MCFCs to operation on commercial propane [66]. MCFCs have also been considered for air-independent propulsion (AIP) in non-nuclear military submarines because of the low noise. 

Several applications of PB methods to biomolecular systems have existed, far too many to cover in a single chapter. However, this section highlights some of the PB studies enabled by new solver technology and likely to see increasing use by scientists in the future. 

Recently, Luo et have investigated many methods for accelerating PB calculations to the point where they are competitive with GB techniques. 

Encouragingly, the acceleration methods described by Luo et al. are appHcable to many software packages and could improve many PB solvers. Although many applications can benefit from faster PB methods, perhaps the most profound advantage will be in the realm of stochastic dynamics simulations by enabling the efficient implicit solvent simulations of protein dynamics at the PB level of electrostatics theory. 

An understanding of electrostatic interactions is essential for the study of biomolecular processes. The structures of proteins and other biopolymers are being determined at an increasing rate through structural genomics and other 

In this chapter, we have covered some of the basic elements of the Poisson-Boltzmann implicit solvent description of biomolecular electrostatics. Specifically, we have focused on the application of these methods to basic problems in computational biology. The discussion presented here is necessarily incomplete—electrostatics is a very broad field and continually changing. For additional background and more in-depth discussions of some of the principles and limitations of continuum electrostatics, interested readers should see the general continuum electrostatics texts by Jackson and Landau et al., the electrochemistry text of Bockris et al., the colloid theory treatise by Verwey and Overbeek, and the fantastic collection of condensed matter electrostatics articles assembled by Holm et al.  

Further applications of the determination of cations in non saline waters are reviewed in Table 2.2. 

A number of other papers providing comparisons between plant, pilot, or laboratory scale 

Arwickar (1981) reported some results for distillation under total reflux conditions of the system acetone-methyl acetate-methanol. The experiments were carried out in a laboratory scale column of 7.62 cm diameter packed with 0.635 cm Raschig rings. The simulation of total reflux operations using the nonequilibrium model is discussed by Krishnamurthy and Taylor (1985a). In simulations of Arwickar s experiments Taylor et al. used the correlations of Onda et al. (1968) to estimate the mass transfer coefficients in each phase and the effective interfacial area. The average absolute discrepancy between predicted and measured mole fractions was less than 2 mol% for acetone and methyl acetate and less than 4 mol% for methanol. 

Gorak et al. (1991) and Wozny et al. (1991) presented a brief description of their use of a nonequilibrium state model to simulate vacuum distillation of fatty alcohols in columns fitted with structured packing. They found that the compositions predicted by the nonequilibrium model were closer to the experimental data than were the results of an equilibrium stage-HETP calculation. 

Krishnamurthy and Andrecovich (1989) used a nonequilibrium model to simulate cyro-genic distillation processes. 

McNulty and Chatterjee (1992) discuss the use of nonequilibrium models to design packed bed pumparound zones of crude distillation towers. 

In common with other spectroscopic techniques, UV spectroscopy can be used to measure the kinetics of chemical reactions, including biochemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes. For example, suppose that two compounds A and B react to form a third compound C. If the third compound absorbs UV radiation, its concentration can be measured continuously. The original concentrations of A and B can be measured at the start of the experiment. By measuring the concentration of C at different time intervals, the kinetics of the reaction A -I- B C can be calculated. Enzyme reactions are important biochemically and also analytically an enzyme is very selective, even specific, for a given compound. The compound with which the enzyme reacts is called the substrate. If the enzyme assay is correctly designed, any change in absorbance of the sample will result only from reaction of the substrate with the enzyme. The rate of an enzyme reaction depends on temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and activity, and substrate concentration. If conditions are selected such that all of the substrate is converted to product in a short period of time, the amount of substrate can be calculated from the difference between the initial absorbance of the solution and the final absorbance. Alternatively, the other experimental variables can be controlled so that the rate of the enzyme reaction is directly proportional to substrate concentration. 

Many titration procedures in volumetric analysis use an indicator that changes color to signal the endpoint of the titration. For example, acid-base titrations are often performed 

Spectrophotometric titrations have been used for redox titrations, acid-base titrations, and complexation titrations. The spectrophotometer can be used in a light scattering mode to measure the endpoint for a precipitation titration by turbidimetry. Spectrophotometric titrations can be easily automated. 

Spectrophotometric analyses are capable of being performed with relative standard deviations as low as 0.5%. Detection limits depend on the molar absorptivity of the transition being measured, but are often 0.05 ppm or lower for many analytes. The linear working range for spectrophotometry is generally only one to two orders of magnitude. This is a short linear range compared to fluorescence, as will be seen. 

Other industrial applications include the fabrication of two-part epoxy resins (similar to those commonly found in household maintenance stores) [95-97], These were synthesized using triglycerides and diamines. These resins are often used as adhesives these have also been studied using soybean oil, which provided beneficial properties in terms of fast curing, thermal stability and ease of removal (peel strength) [98], A blend of divinylbenzene/styrene/tung oil mix gave a polyurethane-based material which behaved like a smart polymer with shape memory behaviour [66]. 

Lipids present an excellent opportunity for the production of bioplastics. They can be directly polymerized using free-radical or cationic processes with the addition of some additives. The reactivity present in many triglycerides (hydroxyl groups, double bonds) allows for the facile manipulation to whatever the desired functional group for polymerization may be. Triglycerides are an excellent, sustainable platform chemical for polymer production the explosion in their use since the early 2000s will only continue as concerns over petrochemical feedstocks and prices grow. 

Murphy, D.J. and Vance, J. (1999) Mechanisms of lipid-body formation. Trends in Biochemical Sciences 24(3), 109-115. 

Eteshola, E. and Oraedu, A. (1996) Fatty acid compositions of tigemut tubers (Cypems escutenlus L.), baobab seeds (Adansonia digitate L.), and their mixture. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 73(2), 255-257. 

Benaniba, M.T., Belhaneche-Bensemra, N. and Gelbard, G. (2001) Stabilizing effect of epoxidized sunflower oil on the thermal degradation of poly(vinyl chloride). Polymer Degradation and Stability, 74(3), 501-505. 

In recent years, another new electrochemical application of carbon aerogels as electrode material for the capacitive deionization in water phase was reported. J.C. Farmer and other researchers in the United States did an electric desalting experiments using carbon aerogels and found improved performance with such materials relative to those obtained with other carbons [79, 84, 124]. 

Kistler SS (1931) Coherent expanded aerogels and jelUes. Nature 127 741. 

Kistler SS (1932) Coherent expanded aerogels. J Phys Chem 36 52-64. 

Kistler SS (1941) Aerogels. Patent US 2249767 assigned to Monsanto Chemical Co. 

Smith DM, Stein D, Anderson JM, Ackermann W (1995) Preparation of low-density xerogels at ambient pressure. J Non-Cryst Solids 186 104. 

Various other applications have been demonstrated or proposed for conducting polymers, and some of these are now briefly described. 

Fuel cells have been constructed using conductive polymers as the electrocatalytic materials. An example of this type of device utilizes the oxidation of PA in the presence of HBF4, which leads to the formation of conductive PA doped with BF4 anions according to the equation 

Conductive polymers have been proposed as matrices for the controlled release of chemicals. In this application, advantage is taken of the fact that the counterions in p-type (oxidized) conducting polymers are released into solution when the polymer is electrochemically reduced. Ton gate membranes have been proposed, employing conductive polymers to vary the permeability of the membrane to ions. This exploits the fact that certain neutral undoped polymers are hydrophobic whereas their doped forms are polar salts. 

Conductive polymers have also been studied by IBM as potential electron beam resist materials for use in semiconductor processing [123]. Because they are conducting materials, there are no charging problems as are often experienced with conventional materials, and negative images 

Many other individual applications for decanters exist, outside the classifications already covered. In the agricultural sector, decanters are used to dewater pig manure, as well as other farming wastes. In the mechanical engineering sector, as well as the cutting and lubricating oil recycle systems, there is the removal of accumulated impurities from electroplating and electrochemical machining solutions. 

The recycle of waste oils (as opposed to their treatment prior to disposal) is becoming an important process for the decanter, as the cost of all kinds of oils has started once again to rise. The recycling of plastics is of rapidly growing concern, and the double beach (one at each end) decanter is used to separate plastic granules into two fractions by density. 

The decanter centrifuge lends itself to a wide range of theoretical treatments, both process and mechanical. Reif and Stahl [1] observed that the decanter incorporates three extensive fundamental problems , dewatering of the solids, clarification of the liquor, and conveyance of the cake produced. These three major subjects will be covered here, together with separate sections to deal with specific decanter processes, such as thickening, classification, three-phase separation and the latest technology of dry solids operation. 

Separate sections concerning allied topics, such as particle size technology and fluid flow will also be included briefly. A few important mechanical aspects will also be covered, such as resonance, maximum bowl speed, and bearing and gearbox life. 

Firstly some basic decanter theories will be expounded. 

Aggregates are used in a variety of applications relating to drainage of water from land and structures, and to filtration of water and effluent. The key factors are the permeability of the aggregate, ease of construction, stability and durability and these are governed by the particle size distribution and the strength/durabil-ity of the aggregate [8.1]. 

Crushed, dense limestone aggregates are generally suitable for such applications. 

The main requirement is for high strength and resistance to abrasion (see section 8.8.1). As limestone generally has a lower abrasion resistance than many other 

Limestone blocks, weighing up to several tonnes, are used as armourstone for coastal and shoreline engineering [8.21]. A CEN product specification standard is in preparation (section 8.8.1). 

There are a few interesting forensic applications that do not exactly fall into any of the previous categories and that will be discussed in this section. Table 14.5 shows their main characteristics. 

Santamaria-Femandez et al. investigated different approaches to identify such counterfeit products. First, they compared the discriminant power of approaches relying on S isotopic analysis for a large-scale investigation of a certain antiviral product [94]. They evaluated three different approaches dissolution of the samples followed by analysis by means of MC-ICP-MS, isolation of the API (active pharmaceutical ingredient) by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 

Antiviral drugs S and Mg isotopes ratios (C and N isotope ratios monitored by IRMS) MC-ICP-MS [95] 

Black and colored toners Cu isotope ratios plus multi-elemental analysis LA-ICP-TOF-MS [97] 

Single human hair strands S isotope ratios LA-MC-ICP-MS [98] 

Magnetic ceramics are used in a number of applications such as radar-signal absorbers, magnetic printers, magnetic levitation, lithiated materials for ionic conductivity, etc. A brief description of these applications is given 

In magnetic printers, the basic idea is to form a latent image by means of a magnetic drum and a system of magnetic heads. Each magnetic head produces a row of tiny magnetic dots on the drum combined with the drum rotation, this step leads to the image to be printed. In the next step. 

The use of ferrites and other permanent magnet materials for magnetic levitation has been investigated (Atherton, 1980). The permanent magnet was sandwiched between two thin Fe pole pieces and two coils to concentrate the magnetic flux. A calculation of the lift/weight and power/lift ratios showed that ferrite permanent magnets could be used in such an application. 

Magnetic fluids can be used as a high-density solution for the sink-and-float separation of solids in suspension. This separation technique for non-ferrous metals is based on the anomalous viscosity increase of a magnetic suspension as a function of applied field. The magnetic fluid consists typically of magnetite particles with an average diameter of 100 A in water, with 15-25 wt% of ferrite. To prevent particle aggregation, a surfactant such as kerosene and oleic acid, or a polymer is usually 

Li can be inserted into transition-metal oxides at room temperature in an inert atmosphere by a reaction between the oxide and n-butyl-Li. A low but non-negligible mobility of Li ions has been observed in lithiated spinels (Goodenough et al, 1984), which indicates that lithiated ferrites can be used as electrodes in ionic batteries. Lithiation in a-Fc203 (Thackeray, David Goodenough, 1984), Fe304 (Fontcuberta et al, 1986) and y-Fe203 (Pernet et al, 1989) has already been reported. 

The kinds of chain that are chosen for these applications depend on the circumstances. When chain movement is infrequent, a bar-link chain should be considered. When the chain rotates 

FIGURE 8-18 Bar-link chain operates a clamshell digging mechanism. 

FIGURE 8-19 Diagram of catenary to maintain correct tension on draw bench. 

There are many variables to be considered when selecting engineering steel chains for tension linkages. The designer should consult with manufacturers for more information. 

The return strands of heavy bar-link chains must be considered carefully when they run over sprockets and are horizontally arranged. Most steel mill installations are in this category. Generally the numbers of teeth in the drive sprocket are very small and loads are very high, and the surroundings are usually soaked with good high-pressure lubricants. In such a situation, it is essential that adequate slack-side chain tension at the drive be maintained so that the chain cannot jump teeth at peak loads. 

Biodegradable polymers can find high added value applications in the medical field. 

To be used as biomaterials, polymers must possess biocompatibility, bioabsorbability and mechanical resistance [114]. Current applications include surgical implants and plain membranes in vascular or orthopaedic surgery, as well as the controlled release of drugs. PLA is the most widely used material for medical applications. Other possible outlets are offered by the hygiene sector including, nappy back sheets, cotton swabs, disposable razors and so on. 

Besides mulch films, other potential agricultural applications for biodegradable polymers include devices for the controlled release of agrochemicals (such as fertilisers, soil applied active ingredients, insect pheromones and so on), disposable articles such as plant pots, composting containers and bags, envelopes of ensilage, seed trays and so on. 

DENDRITIC MOLECULES ON SOLID SUPPORT SOLID-PHASE SYNTHESIS AND APPLICATIONS 

The dendrons on solid support, reviewed in this chapter, display a substantial structural and applicative diversity. Although these hybrids are usually prepared on polystyrene or sihca cores, additional organic (PEGA, hydroxyethyl methacrylate) and inorganic (carbon 

The use of mulhvalency or preorganization of terminal groups has proven beneficial for various uses of the hybrid materials in separation studies. We may expect that the abUity of 

In addition to the already broadly studied applications, there are a number of those that have barely been proposed, sometimes supported by a limited feasibility study, for example, the use of supported dendrons as synthetic intermediates for the preparation of drug or gene dehvery vehicles, for the construction of nanoparticles, and for the assembly of probes for the study of biochemical processes. The use of dendronized supports as tools for multivalent molecular recognition has also hardly been explored. New applications may emerge, though naturally they are more difhcult to foresee. For instance, support-bound probes for investigation of enzymatic activity, which will exploit the multivalency and the proximity of the dendritic arms, may follow the examples of the detachable dendritic probes.  

The term polymer electronics describes a field of properties and applications of electrically conductive polymers that arise besides of only electrical conductivity. These applications derive from a combination of properties of these materials especially at the interfaces of electrically conducting organic materials and metals or 

Other avenues of miniaturization are being pursued that have medical applications. These include the opportunity to 

Biodegradable polymers have found other applications that have been commercialised or are under investigation. Anastomosis rings have been developed as an alternative to suturing for intestinal resection. Tissue staples have also replaced sutures in certain procedures. Other applications currently under scrutiny include ligating clips, vascular grafts, stents, and tissue engineering scaffolds. 

Most of the commercially available biodegradable devices are polyesters composed of homopolymers or copolymers of glycolide and lactide. There are also devices made from copolymers of trimethylene carbonate and e-caprolactone, and a suture product made from polydioxanone. 

Some of the most widely used biodegradable polymers used for biomedical applications are briefly described below. 

Polyglycolide was used to develop the first totally synthetic absorbable suture, marketed as Dexon in the 1960s by Davis and Geek, Inc. 

Polylactides have a high modulus that makes them more suitable for load bearing applications such as in orthopaedic fixation and sutures. 

Designing appropriate polymer-drug linkers for orally administered conjugates is another challenge. Peptidyl sequences tailored for site-specific cleavage by brush border enzymes, i.e., at the enterocyte smface (263), were explored, and also azo hnkers for colon-specific, e.g., of anti-inflammatory agents like aminosalicyfic acid (264). 

We examined HPMA copolymer-peptide conjugates as potential oral vaccines (138). A human rhinovirus peptide VP2 (VKAETRLNPDLQPTETSQDVANAIVC) was covalently linked to an HPMA-Gly-Gly-ONp polymeric precursor. Conjugation improved peptide stability during incubation with brush border membrane and luminal peptidases transport but studies on GI transport and oral immunization failed to show conjugate advantage. 

FITC-labeled HPMA copol3rmer conjugates containing aldendronate and aspartic acid peptide have recently been synthesized (276). Their ability to target bone was examined in vitro using a hydroxyapatite model and in vivo in mice. 

In the beginning of this chapter several other possible applications of CMP were mentioned. Each one of these areas offers its own challenges related to the material to be polished. 

F ure 8.9 CoppCT-parylene interconnections formed with copper CMP. 

The Ta Iiner/Si02 cap layer delaminated from the parylene-N ILD after removal of the copper metal. 

Landis, P. Burke, W. Cote, W. Hill, C. Hofffman, C. Kaanta, C. Koburger, W. Lange, and S. Luce, Thin Solid Films, 220, 1 (1992). 

Goodman, M.W. Horn., and R.R. Kunz, in Proc. 11th VMIC, Santa Qara, CA, Proc. 94ISMIC-103, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa (1994), p. 204. 

Whereas paved roads, unpaved roads, and railroads are extremely large application markets, there are others in which geotextiles serve a primary function of separation. 

The active area of mechanically stabilized earth walls and slopes uses geotextile separators in two critical locations covering a base drain beneath the reinforced soil zone and around individual lifts of backfill soil. See Fig. 11.10 for these locations. 

Drainage composite (chimney drain) Geosynthetic reinforcement Geotextile separator/fllter 

There are many existing and emerging systems used on soil slopes for erosion control and stabilization. These include rock riprap, prefabricated articulated concrete block systems, concrete bock hardscaping systems, concrete or mortar-filled 

This application is similar to the use of geotextiles to prevent crack reflection in asphalt-paved roads. Here, the impregnation (which is an emulsified bitumen) is placed first, and then the geotextile and then the asphalt overlay (Fig. 11.13). 

Solid microlenses and microlens arrays have been studied and used for more than twenty years [12], Some applications of microlens arrays such as beam shaping [46], focusing light onto CCD arrays [47], and Shack-Hartmann wave-front sensors [10] have been commercialized. Applications of solid microlens arrays are covered extensively in Daly s book [12]. In this book, we will cover some new applications and fabrications of solid microlenses and microlens arrays in Chapter 4, and will focus on tunable microlenses. 

Micrographia. London The Royal Society of London, 1665. 

Wu and G. M. Whitesides, Fabrication of diffractive and micro-optical elements using microlens projection lithography, Advanced Materials, vol. 14, pp. 1502-1506, Oct 2002. 

Roulet, R. Volkel, H. P. Herzig, E. Verpoorte, N. F. de Rooij, and R. Dandliker, Fabrication of multilayer systems combining microfluidic and microoptical elements for fluorescence detection, Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol. 10, pp. 482-491, Dec 2001. 

Moench and H. Zappe, Fabrication and testing of micro-lens arrays by allliquid techniques, Journal of Optics A Pure and Applied Optics, vol. 6, pp. 330-337, Apr 2004. 

In addition to four component condensation, several other applications of chiral primary ferrocenylalkyl amines have been published. Thus, an asymmetric synthesis of alanine was developed (Fig. 4-3la), which forms an imine from 1-ferrocenylethyl amine and pyruvic acid, followed by catalytic reduction (Pd/C) to the amine. Cleavage of the auxiliary occurs readily by 2-mercaptoacetic acid, giving alanine in 61% ee and allowing for recycling of the chiral auxiliary from the sulfur derivative by the HgClj technique [165]. Enantioselective reduction of imines is not limited to pyruvic acid, but has recently also been applied to the imine with acetophenone, although the diastereoisomeric ferrocenylalkyl derivatives of phenylethylamine were obtained only in a ratio of about 2 1 (Fig. 4-31 b). The enantioselective addition of methyl lithium to the imine with benzaldehyde was of the same low selectivity [57]. Recycling of the chiral auxiliary was possible by treatment of the secondary amines with acetic acid/formaldehyde mixture that cleaved the phenylethylamine from the cation and substituted it for acetate. 

With respect to diastereoselectivity, the reaction of the imine of l-ferrocenyl-2-methyl-propylamine and piperonal with a racemic cyclic anhydride gave a much better result (diastereomer ratio 81 10 of the isoindole derivatives, total yield 91%) the major isomer crystallized from the reaction mixture. This reaction was the key step in an enantioselective synthesis of the alkaloid (+ )-corynoline (Fig. 4-31 c). The l-ferrocenyl-2-methyl-propyl auxiliary could be cleaved by the 2-mercaptoacetic acid technique. The final elaboration of the intermediate to (+ )-corynoline needed only five steps [166]. 

The linear poly (ethylene glycol) derivative 26 carrying an Fc group at one end and an N-hydroxysuccinimide ester group at the other end was covalently coupled to mouse anti-goat and goat anti-mouse IgGs. 

Due to their chemical inertness, high abrasion resistance, low friction and good biocompatibility DLC films are very promising candidates for biomedical applications. For example, femoral heads of hip protheses have been coated successfully with DLC to reduce the production of small wear particles, which can lead to reactions on a cellular level. Furthermore DLC was shown to be a potential material for artificial heart valves where the films must be non-thrombogenic and must have a long-time stabihty in contact with blood [93]. Mitura et al. [94] investigated DLC 

For the application of coatings, also cost and benefit aspects must be considered. It shall be noted here that Matthews and Eskildsen [78] discussed this topic in detail for four different DLC production methods taking into account prices for deposition equipments to be obtained in the UK. 

Weissmantel, K. Bewilogua, K. Breuer, D. Dietrich, U. Ebersbach, H.-J. Erler, B. Rau, and G. Reisse, Thin Solid Films 1982, 96, 31-44. 

Weissmantel, in Thin Films from Free Atoms and Particles, J. Klabunde (Ed.), Academic, New York, 1985, pp. 153-201. 

Martinu, A. Raveh, A. Domingue, L. Bertrand, J. E. Klemberg-Sapieha, S. C. Gujrathi, and M. R. Wertheimer, Thin Solid Films 1992, 208, 42-47. 

Polylactide has high potential in agricultural applications such as mulch films either in pure form or blended with other polymers such as thermoplastic starch. In addition, polylactide is used in compostable yard bags and dog poop bags. Lactic acid based hot-melt adhesives have also been developed (90). Foamed PLA could be used as structural protective foams, loose-fill packaging and insulation material as an alternative for expanded polystyrene (EPS). While packaging is currently the high volume application 

Phenylthiocarbamoyl derivatives of 18 chiral amino acids were separated on a C8 column connected in series to a phenylcarbamoylated (3-cyclodextrin column (Iida et al., 1997). The Cg column separated the derivatized amino acids from one another entering the chiral column. Under this configuration several enantiomers of adjacent amino acids coeluted resulting in poor resolution. However, this configuration was successful in determining the amino acid sequence and chirality of the amino acids in a D-amino acid containing peptide. 

With the increased popularity of LC-MS, the problem of overlapping enantiomer peaks from other amino acids has largely been resolved. The mass spectrometer can act as an additional dimension of separation (based on mass to charge ratio). Thus, only amino acids having the same mass-to-charge ratio must be separated achirally (see Desai and Armstrong, 2004). This additional dimension of separation also has implications for the applications in the matrices discussed previously. With the ability of the mass spectrometer to discriminate on the basis of mass, this lessens the need for complete achiral separation. For example, an LC-MS method was recently developed to study the pharmacokinetics of theanine enantiomers in rat plasma and urine without an achiral separation before the enantiomeric separation (Desai et al., 2005). In such matrices, proteins must still be removed by appropriate sample preparation. 

Supercritical COj is used in different procedures for the formation of small particles, and also as an antisolvent to precipitate substances out of a solution in conventional solvents. Such small particles improve the dissolving kinetics of pharmaceuticals and are a precondition for inhalative applications. Dense CO2 is applied as a solvent for reactions and chemical synthesis, e.g. for hydrogenation of vegetable oils, and it is increasingly important for preparative-scale chromatographic separations which require large amounts of solvent that can be simply recycled in the supercritical process. 

The driving forces for all these applications, which are partly under development and partly commercialised, are the improved cost effectiveness and legal and environmental pressure for sustainable and non-polluting processes and solvent-free products. 

Distillation and rectification are among the most common physical separation methods, both on a laboratory scale and for industrial production, which have encountered widespread application in the flavour and fragrance industry. It is the intent of the following discussion to familiarise the reader with the basic fundamentals necessary for the daily operation of such units extensive literature is available on the theoretical and practical aspects of designing and operating such equipment [1-9]. 

The development of this important thermal separation process can be dated back to ancient times. Until the end of the 18 century, however, the stmcture of the distillation apparatus had remained almost unchanged. It consisted of an evaporation unit, a distillation flask heated by an oven, and a condensation unit with an air- and later water-cooled condenser. In the early 19 century, progress in distillation techniques was spurred by the necessity to produce sugar in Europe this politically motivated development resulted in numerous patents for the production of alcohol. Depending on the different starting materials, a number of distillation units and the first rectification columns were developed in various European countries [10]. The 19 and 20 centuries saw a rapid development of distillation technology prompted by increasing applications in the petrochemical, chemical and pharmaceutical industries. 

A fine example of a closed water cycle is the application of nanofiltrafion in the leather industry (Cassano et al., 2001). Wastewater contains large eoneentrations of tannins or chromium after pretreatment by ultrafiltration, the chemieals used in the baths can be recovered in the concentrate fraction (Molinari et al., 2004), whereas the permeate can be reused for other purposes, for example, in the pickling step (Cassano et al., 1999). 

In the sugar industry, NF is used for concentration of dextrose symp originating from starch and for demineralization of colored brine from anion exchange resin elution solutions (Bargeman et al., 2005). The purification of alternative (low-calorie) sweeteners such as stevioside might also require a nanofiltration step (Zhang et al., 2000). 

In the beverage industry, NF can be used for concentration of juices (Warezok et al., 2004) and for water reclamation in breweries (Bracken et al., 2004). 

Finally, the reclamation of water used in cleaning-in-place (QP) operations, used in many branches of the food industry, can be done by using NF, on condition that the removal of organics is sufficient, and that membranes are used that can operate in extreme conditions of pH. 

Due to the low rejection of monovalent salts, osmotic pressures in NF are lower than in RO. Thus, lower pressures need to be applied, and the energy consumption is proportionally lower. RO membranes operable at ultralow pressures have been developed (Semiat, 2000 Matsuura, 2001) that allow the desalination of brackish water at pressures comparable to those applied in NF. These membranes operate at the interface of NF and RO and might be helpful in optimizing the desalination process. Hassan et al. (1998) reported the use of NF in an integrated desalination system NF-SWRO (sea water reverse osmosis) and 

The results obtained by the authors were comparable to products produced from conventional cellulose paper [82]. Dahman and Oktem obtained an optically transparent nanostructured biocomposite composed of surface-modified BNC and poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate). Composite samples containing 1% (w/w) nanofiber transmitted over 80% of the light, whereas samples with less than 1% (w/w) BNC content exhibited higher light transmittances [83]. Transparent NCC films open the doors to new applications for cellulose devices, e.g., paper displays, smart packaging, radiofrequency identification, and smart labels [82,83]. 

headphone diaphragms with high sonic velocity and low dynamic loss were manufactured with use of nanocellulose. Incontrovertible advantage of ultrathin nanocellulose diaphragms is that it can produce the same sound velocity as an aluminum or titanium diaphragm, along with the warm, delicate sound [33]. 

Ummartyotin et al. [84] reported that nanocomposite films composed of BNC (10-50 wt%] and polyurethane-based resin were evaluated as a substrate for flexible organic light emitting diode [OLED] display [Fig. 21.43], The results were satisfying since the visible light transmittance of the nanocomposite films 

Nowadays, bioactive packaging, due to its eco-friendly nature and its potential to improve food quality, is gaining a 

Rare earths are used as catalysts and catalyst promoters in a variety of processes such as oxidation, synthesis of alcohol, dehydration and production of specialty chemicals. Complex oxides containing rare earths are also used as electrode materials in electrochemical systems. 

Kovacova (1990) describes a method for the batch drying of fruit and vegetable pulp in a fluidized bed in which carrier particles (variously crystalline and caster sugar, dried skim milk, potato and wheat starch, apple powder, semolina or oat flakes), pre-moistened to a solids content of between 55% and 76%, are fed to a preheated fluidized bed and sprayed with the pulp to be dried. A product with a narrow particle size distribution and a uniform pulp content is claimed. Specific foods for which fluidized bed granulation has been used include potato puree (Zelenskaya and Filipenko, 1989) and granulated dried apple (Haida et al, 1994). 

Except for the recent developments in measurement of electrode kinetics of multiple-electron charge transfer reactions and in 

Growth formation in epitaxial electrodeposition. Recently, Sheshadri113 observed that at small overpotentials caused by faradaic rectification, growth formation occurs in the epitaxial electrodeposition of copper on various copper single-crystal planes. 

Study of instantaneous corrosion rates. Sathyanarayana and Srinivasan114,115 have extended faradaic rectification studies to the determination of instantaneous corrosion rates of partially reversible metal ion/metal interfaces. They emphasized the practical utility of the method in the fast monitoring of the corrosion of a battery. 

Earlier studies generally involved the evaluation of kinetic parameters of reactions which are accompanied by single-electron charge transfer.116 Some reactions involving two-electron charge transfer were also studied, assuming either that both electrons are transferred in a single step or that the slower step in the two-step reaction is in overall control of the rate process. As described in this chapter for the first time, the faradaic rectification theory for 

The method can successfully be used in analyses of impurities in metals and alloys, for estimation of minor elements in monomolecular films of oxide layers of Fe-Cr-Ni alloys, for detection of metal impurities in environmental pollution, for studying the depression of high-grade semiconducting materials and for analysis of the corrosion products of contact junction diodes used in microelectronic circuits. Much sophistication is desirable on the instrumental side so as to incorporate an automatic recording device to make an FR polarograph suitable for wider applications and common use. 

Sayano et al. [97] generated the potential of mean force for interactions between amino acids and base pairs. Okamoto and coworkers [98, 99] have also developed replica-exchange multicanonical methods for proteins. Numerous additional biological examples can be found among the references within [94]. 

Transition matrix estimators have received less attention than the multicanonical and Wang-Landau methods, but have been applied to a small collection of informative examples. Smith and Bruce [111, 112] applied the transition probability approach to the determination of solid-solid phase coexistence in a square-well model of colloids. Erring ton and coworkers [113, 114] have also used the method to determine liquid-vapor and solid-liquid [115] equilibria in the Lennard-Jones system. Transition matrices have also been used to generate high-quality data for the evaluation of surface tension [114, 116] and for the estimation of order parameter weights in phase-switch simulations [117]. 

Corbridge, Phosphorus An Outline of its Chemistry, Biochemistry and Technology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1995. 

Du Mont, R. Hensel, S. Kubiniok and L. Lange, in The Chemistry of Organic Selenium and Tellurium Compounds, S. Patai (ed), vol 2, Wiley, New York, 1987, 591-656. 

Hartley, The Chemistry of Organophosphorus Compounds, vol 2, John Wiley Sons, New York, 1992. 

Kosolapoff and L. Maier, Organic Phosphorus Compounds, vol 4, Wiley, New York, 1972. 

Blachnik, P. Lonnecke, K. Boldt and B. Engelen, Acta Crystallogr., Sect. C Cryst. Struct. Commun., 1994, 50, 659. 

With the appropriate fiber-optic probe and data processing techniques, UV-vis spectroscopy may be used to determine the optical thickness of a transparent thin film. It is possible to simultaneously measure thickness of different layers in a multilayer structure as long as each layer falls within the analysis range of the instrument. Typically, this means layers in the 0.5-150/rm range. A further constraint on this technique is that the layer structure of the film must be smooth on the scale of the spot size of the fiber-optic probe. Neighboring layers must have different indices of refraction in order for them to appear as distinct layers to the analyzer. 

Depending upon the particular sample, all or a portion of the spectrum in the 400-1000nm wavelength range may be used. In contrast to a color measurement or a chemical concentration measurement, maximum 

Segmented gas-liquid (Taylor) flow was used for particle synthesis within the liquid slugs. Tetraethylorthosilicate in ethanol was hydrolyzed by a solution of ammonia, water and ethanol (Stober synthesis) [329]. The resulting silicic acid monomer Si (OH)4 is then converted by polycondensation to colloidal monodisperse silica nanoparticles. These particles have industrial application, for example, in pigments, catalysts, sensors, health care, antireflective coatings and chromatography. 

The Taylor-flow microreactor comprised a micromixer for mixing of the precursors for the particle synthesis followed by a gas inlet for separating this continuous mixed liquid stream into segments separated by gas bubbles [328,329]. 

Monodisperse silica nanoparticles of a diameter of 200-500 nm were obtained [329]. This is explained by the well-defined residence time with reduced axial dispersion of the liquid segments [328,329]. In addition, by moving the liquid segments through a tube recirculation flow sets in, which is very effective in liquid mixing. 

The fast fluidized bed dryer is used extensively in a wide variety of industries. The fast fluidized bed dryer works well for cohesive and sticky 

In recent years the fast fluidized bed has also found applications in other processes, such as low-temperature adsorption of pollutants (e.g, HC1, HF, S02) from different process waste gas streams (Reh, 1986), noise reduction (Yang, 1992), etc. for example, in the aluminum smelter of VAW/Lurgi today, 3 x 106 m3/hr of fluorine-laden potline offgas are cleaned to less than 1 mg F/m3 by adsorption on alumina at a temperature of 70°C. 

All the processes have proven the fast fluidized bed to be an efficient tool in environmental control. 

Diamondlike Carbon and Hard Carbon-Based Sensors Sensors that are based upon diamond technology include thermistors, pressure and flow sensors, radiation detectors, and surface acoustic wave devices [103]. The relative ease of depositing prepattemed, dielectrically isolated insulating and. semiconducting (boron-doped p type) diamond films has made polycrystalline diamond-based sensors low-cost alternatives to those based on conventional semiconductors. Diamondlike carbon and diamond films synthesized by chemical 

25 A diamond-based force chip composed of a pressure-sensing diaphragm, an FET, a diamond beam, and a Hall sensor. (Adapted from Ref. 104.) 

Fullerene C(,o adsorbed onto STM tips has been reported to enhance atomic resolution images of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite [110]. Recently, Dai et al. [Ill] have demonstrated that multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) attached to the silicon cantilever of a conventional atomic force microscope (AFM) can be used as well-defined tips with exceptionally high resistance to damage from tip crashes. The MWNT were attached by first coating the bottom 1 -2 mm section of the silicon tip with an acrylic adhesive by inserting them 

26 A single 5 nm diameter MWNT extending from the AFM tip. (Adapted from Ref. 111.) 

27 An atomic-scale resolution STM image of a freshly cleaved IT-TaS surface obtained using an MWNT tip. 

This technique has the virtue of providing quite accurate values ( + 5%) using a relatively simple experimental procedure. However, because it necessitates measurements in the T—F region it would seem to be essential to make the necessary measurements rapidly in order to avoid the risk of surface build-up in the applied field. 

Introduction.—Without doubt the most important recent advance in field emission techniques has been the development of field emission spectroscopy. It has led to a critical re-examination of the theory of field emission and contributed to the recent considerable advance in understanding of the electronic structure of surfaces and of chemisorbed species. A comprehensive review of the theory and practice has been 

Whereas the butylated resins have enhanced solubility in organic solvents, enhanced solubility in water (which is rather limited in resins of high molecular weight) is required for some purposes and this may be achieved in a number of ways. For example, in acid condensation of urea and formaldehyde in the presence of sodium bisulphite the following reaetion takes place  

Ionisation occurs in aqueous solution to give a resin of negative charge, as in, for example, a number of anionic resins  

Modification of urea resins with certain organic bases, e.g. triethylene-tetramine, will give resins with basic groups which form ionisable salts in the presence of acids  

These resins are referred to as cationic resins . Paper with improved wet strength may be obtained by adding an ionic resin at the beater stage of a papermaking operation. For the best results a high molecular weight resin is required. 

The purification of gases is accomplished by removing undesirable components by 

In reactive strippers, hydrogen sulfide and/or ammonia are removed from water in 

In other applications, chemicals are produced by contacting gases and liquids in multistage processes where reaction products are concentrated in the same operation. Examples of such processes include the production of nitric acid (Koukolik and Marek, 1968) and chlorination. 

assuming fixed feed AB What variables control the purity of products A and B  

A mixture of ethanol and benzene is to be separated into its constituents. The mixture forms a minimum-boiling azeotrope whose composition shifts with pressure. At 25 kPa the azeotropic composition is 36.0 mole% ethanol and at 100 kPa it is 44.8 mole% ethanol. The feed stream to be separated, F, contains 60.0 kmol/h ethanol and 30.0 kmol/h benzene. Stream F is mixed with a recycle stream D2 and then sent to the low pressure column. The distillate from this column, Dj, is at the azeotropic composition, and the bottoms, may be assumed pure ethanol. Stream 

The easiest way to identify symbiosis is to examine a ratio such as A ch3i/A ch3F5 which will be large for soft nucleophiles and small for hard ones. A convenient probe is an ambident nucleophile which usually has a hard site and a soft site. An example is Me2SO, which reacts at oxygen with methyl benzenesulfonate and at sulfur with methyl iodide. These changes in selectivity have been found in all solvents, including dipolar, aprotic ones.  

Such additional stabilization should appear in the gas-phase energy barrier. This is difficult to demonstrate because of the large effect of exothermicity, and because the stabilization is usually small. For example, in the gas-phase reactions of CH3CI with CH3O and CH-.S, the barrier height is 2.6 kcal/mol higher for the soft CHsS. The reaction with CH3O is 13 kcal/mol more exothermic, which could reduce its barrier by 5-6 kcal/mol, relative to CHsS . The expected TS stabilization is only about 3 kcal/mol (see above), which is not inconsistent. 

Symbiotic effects are a serious problem in the use of the Marcus equation to predict rates of methyl group transfers. This otherwise useful equation predicts that for a pair of reactions such as 

In one way or another, the HSAB Principle has found many applications in most 

Unfortunately this equation is as quantitative as HSAB gets. There was no exact definition of hardness, ry, and no operational definition which allowed it to be measured. The values in Tables 1.4 and 1.5 are useful only in ordering acids and bases. They are not transferable as numbers to any other examples. Therefore applications have always been qualitative. Even so, the HSAB concept has been extremely useful in correlating and understanding a great deal of experimental data. 

Natural gas from a gas well can be passed through an alkali scrubber to remove H2S gas and the alkali solution in the scrubber fed to an electrolyzer to recover caustic soda as catholyte and to precipitate sulfur in the anode compartment together with the generation of hydrogen gas.157 

N-polymer (deposition) + CH3COO + H20 anode reaction 2H20 — 02+4H+ 4- 4e  

A variety of technologies have been used to test a breath sample for alcohol, one of which is infrared. A schematic diagram showing the basis on which such a device works is shown in Eigure 8.13. The procedure starts with a person blowing into the tube and the absorption band at 3.44 pm (3400 nm) measures alcohol. A correction is made for acetone 

One such portable instrument that is based on IR for measuring breath alcohol is the Intoxilyzer-8000 from CMI. It uses dual wavelengths for measurement and takes less than one minute to deliver a result. When the performance of the protable Intoxilyzer-8000 (7.7 kg) was compared with that of the approved stationary Intoxilyzer-5000 instrument (13.6kg), it was shown that the portable instrument performed well enough to be used for evidential breath alcohol testing.  

Davies, E. A smart move for holograms. Chemistry World, May 2006, 54. 

The top 100 point-of-care manufacturing companies worldwide, Research Markets Report, Oct 2003. 

diabetesnet.com/diabetes technology/blood glucose meters.php 

The potential of 2-methylnaphtho[l,8-r/Htriazin-2-ium-l-ide 5a as a stabilizer against photooxidation has been mentioned (see Section 9.01.6.1). 3-Acyloxy-3,4-dihydro-l,2,3-benzotriazin -ones are reduced smoothly by tributyl-stannane upon initiation by AIBN to give the corresponding norhydrocarbons, which constitutes a mild method of decarboxylation (see Section 9.01.8.3). 

Only few DNA molecules are fixed on a poly(vinyl butyral) coated glasses. PVK and poly(phenazasiline) coated surfaces sufficiently fix and stretch the DNA molecules. Such coated surfaces provide an adequate AFM observation of the stretched DNA molecules. A specific interaction is attributed to the r-stacking between the aromatic amines in the polymers and the base pairs in the DNA molecules.  

) (1970) Hancock of Pulp and Paper Tedmrdogy, 2nd edn. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 

(1992) Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technologists, 2nd edn, Angus Worldwide, Vancouver. 

Biermann, C.J. (1993) Essentials of Pulping and Papermaking, Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 

Chemistry and Chemical Technology, 3rd edn, Wiley-Interscience, New York. 

(1993) in Defoaming Theory and Industrial Applications (ed. P.R. Garrett), 26. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 151—175. 

Both the chemical nature and the concentration of polymeric modifiers in polymer-modified bitumens can be determined by DSC. The aging behavior of bitumen and polymer-modified bitumen in road asphalt or of bitumen extracted from road asphalt, may be analyzed and characterized by thermoanalytical methods. Thermogravimetry in inert gas has shown, for example, that the concentration of evaporable components decreases as a consequence of aging whereas the coke residue (residue at 600 °C or 800 °C oven temperature) increases, and that is connected with an increase in the concentration of asphaltenes. 

Thermomechanical Analysis, TMA may be used to measure the change of volume of bitumen, so scratching and crack propagation at low temperatures may be simulated, for example for asphalt paving material. 

For investigation of the kinetics of p)Tolysis and oxidation reactions a Simultaneous Thermal Analyzer is preferred, provided that the incorporated software permits the evaluation according both to ASTME 689-79 and Flynn and Wall. In this way the kinetic parameters can be obtained and at the same time the peak maxima (minima) of the curves of energy against temperature can be examined to decide whether they really appear at equal conversion levels independent of the heating rates. All the requirements for the thermoanalysis of petroleum and its products would be fulfilled if such an instrument could 

No experiments in this field have been reported because the existence of high temperature proton conductors has not widely been known until now. Proton conducting solids are, however, considered to be promising materials for controlling organic reactions if they can be fabricated and used as a thin, dense film. 

Iwahara, T. Esaka, H. Uchida and N. Maeda, Solid State Ionics 3/4 (1981) 359. 

Iwahara, H. Uchida and T. Esaka, Prog. Batter. Solar Cells 4 (1982) 279. 

Yamashita, H. Owada, T. Umegaki, T. Kanazawa and K. Katayama, Proc. of Int. Symp. on SOFC (Nagoya, 1989) 161. 

A device consisting of 15 vol% nickel powder and 40 vol% SiC powder dispersed in a silicone resin binder has been fabricated. Thermal curing is performed via a peroxide initiator. The resulting device switches from a high resistance state ( 10 Q) to a conductive state (1-10 Q) when subjected to electrostatic discharge circuit transients. This response effectively shunts transients to ground in times of 25 ns [22]. 

One of the major applications of CB-loaded polymers is for materials that will dissipate an electrostatic charge. These are referred to as ES D compounds. According to the Electronics Industry Association (EIA) conductive materials have surface resistivity of 10 Q/sq dissipative materials 10 -10 2/sq insulators 10 Q/sq. 

In practice, electrostatic dissipative materials have preferred resistivity in the range of 10 -10 Q/sq [19]. 

The growth potential of this field is clearly illustrated not only by reviewing the available literature, but also by the number of patents on conducting polymer research which have been published during the past few years. Nonetheless, the questions that arise always from an industrial perspective are  

Though several conductive polymer-based products are available commercially, many possibilities exist and are yet to come to market The main disadvantages for the commerdalization of these conductive polymer-based products are their ill-defined and nonoptimized properties. At present the traditionally used chromium-or lead-based products are losing market share due to public concerns over their adverse effects on the environment and to their potential carcinogenic properties. 

However, this should pave the way for conducting polymers to be used as an alternative soluhon. Today, the major challenge for scientists working in the field of conduchve polymer-based products is to overcome any existing problems such that they may offer easily processed, environmentally friendly and stable conductive polymer-based functional coatings for general use. 

PEO-R-MA-40 co-methoxy[poly(ethylene oxide)4Q] undecyl a-methacrylate 

ToF-SIMS time-of-flight-secondary ion mass spectrometry 

Boronic acid-containing gels have recently been shown to have potential application in HIV-1 prevention. As mentioned above, the hydrogels developed by Kiser et al, which are interpolymer complexes of a SHA-bearing polymer and a PBA-bearing polymer based on PBA-diol interaction, exhibit 

Ion chromatography is not only used for monitoring the purity of water and chemicals, but also for analyzing various plating baths such as acid and electroless copper baths, tin/lead baths, electrolytic nickel baths, and gold baths. The analysis of the key components in such baths will be described in more detail in Section 9.4. 

In the manufacturing of integrated circuit boards with geometries in the sub-pm range, one can only counteract the contamination risk by completely monitoring all processes in wafer manufacturing. This not only includes the quality 

The main contaminations are hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid, both of which can be detected with either of the sampling techniques described above. In contrast, hydrofluoric acid can only be detected with the silica absorber. Presumably, fluoride is retained in the wash bottle due to interactions with the glass material. Separate analysis of the two silica segments allows a statement of the efficiency of the gas absorption by silica, which is 100% for HF and 91-100% for HCl. 

Roehl and Doyle used a dilute hydrogen peroxide solution as an absorber solution, in which various gases can be absorbed with an efficiency of more than 90%. The only exception is NO2, which exhibits an absorption efficiency in hydrogen peroxide of 20 % at best. This efficiency can be increased to more than 90 % with a mixture of triethanolamine and 2-propanol, but the higher pH of this mixture also leads to the absorption of large amounts of CO2, and thus interferes with the determination of chloride. Therefore, the mixture of triethanolamine and 2-propanol can only be used for analyzing NO2. 

The separation of cations is usually carried out on lonPac CS12A with sulfuric acid or methanesulfonic acid as an eluant. For anion analysis, carbonate-selective anion exchangers such as lonPac AS12A or AS14 have proved to be suitable. Alternatively, gradient elution on lonPac AS 11 can be used. As a matter of principle, 2-mm columns are utilized in order to reach the required sensitivity. With a gas flow of 1 L/min, sampling times are between 10 and 40 minutes the preconcentrated volume ranges from 1 mL to 10 mL. Metal cations are rarely detected in clean room air because they are usually bound to particles. Because 

Office of Technology Licensing University of California, Berkeley 2150 Shattuck Avenue, Suite 510 Berkeley, CA 94704, U.S.A. 

Steven M. Muskal s program for neural network simulator for protein conformation prediction and other data analysis. BLSS for statistics. Miscellaneous programs available by anonymous ftp from berkeley.edu in directory /pub. PCs (DOS), Macintosh, UNIX workstations. 

410-563-5382, fax 410-563-5389, e-mail info bestpl.hcf.jhu.edu BioWorld Today daily fax biotechnology newsletter. BEST North America database with research profiles, patents, and facilities of more than 125 universities and research institutions and five U.S. federal agencies. Available on CD-ROM using FOLIO Views software. URL is http //www.cartermill.com/. 

Bookends Pro Westing Software 2960 Paradise Drive Tiburon, CA 94920, U.S.A. 

BrainMaker Professional California Scientific Software 10024 Newtown Road Nevada City, CA 95959, U.S.A. 

These include studies on brittleness [37], adhesion and the use of DMTA in polymer characterisation studies [38,49, 83-90]. 

Proceedings of an SPE Philadelphia Section Regional Technical Conference on Thermal and Mechanical Analysis of Plastics in Industry and Research, Newark, DE, USA, 1999. 

Handbook of Thermal Analysis, Eds., T. Hatakeyama and Z. Liu, John Wiley Sons, Chichester, UK, 1998. 

Ruvolo-Filho and E.M. Teixeira, Journal of Macromolecular Science B, 2004, 43, 4, 725. 

Sircar, M.L. Galaska, S. Rodrigues and R.P. Chartoff in Proceedings of the 150 ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Louisville, KY, USA, Fall 1996, Paper No.35. 

Practical Guide to ICP-MS A Tutorial for Beginners, Second Edition 

The added benefit of LA-ICP-MS is that with optimum selection of the laser wavelength, the sampling area can be as low as 10 jam.Therefore, by rastering across 

The Determination of a Group of Elements in an Al/Mo/W High-Temperature Alloy by GD-MS and LA-ICP-MS (Courtesy of Cetac Technologies) 

German dairy product manufacturer Danone launched a biodegradable yogurt package, known as the Eco Cup, in 1998. The base material was polylactic acid and the cups initially cost about three times as much as PP or PS cups. In 1999 Danone withdrew the Eco Cup from the market due to confusion about which waste bin consumers should use for disposal of the package. 

One market which may provide potential for biodegradable polymers includes institutions such as theme parks or special events that must manage their own solid wastes. This concept was showcased at the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000 where 40 million food service items made of starch-based polymers were collected after use and composted [97]. Disposable cutlery and dishes used at the Sydney Olympic Games were supplied by Biocorp Inc., Novamont s North American distributor. 

All the application segments discussed up to now predominantly utilize ICP-MS in a routine manner, using well-established methods. As a result, environmental. 

LA-ICP-MS is also ideal as a depth-profiling tool for the characterization of metal coatings. By optimization of the ablation process for high spatial resolution, the thickness of a metal coating can be determined by slowly ablating a few microns 

You may wonder why radiation—which is known to cause cancer—is also used to treat cancer. The answer lies in risk analysis. A cancer patient is normally exposed to radiation doses of about 100 rem. Such a dose increases cancer risk by about 1%. However, if the patient has a 100% chance of dying from the cancer that he already has, such a risk becomes acceptable, especially since there is a significant chance of curing the cancer. 

Radioactivity is often used to kill microorganisms. For example, physicians use radiation to sterilize medical devices that are to be surgically implanted. The radiation kills bacteria that might otherwise lead to infection. 

Radioactivity is also used to control the populations of harmful insects. For example, fruit flies can be raised in large numbers in captivity and sterilized with radiation. When these fruit flies are released, they mate with wild fruit flies but do not produce offspring. 

The efforts of the wild fruit flies, which might otherwise lead to reproduction, are wasted and the next generation of flies is smalla than it would otherwise have been. Similar strategies have been employed to control the populations of disease-carrying mosquitoes. 

A FIGURE 19.19 Radiotherapy for Cancer This treatment involves exposing a malignant tumor to gamma rays generated by nuclides such as cobalt-60. The beam is moved in a circular pattern around the tumor to maximize exposure of the tumor to radiation while minimizing the exposure of healthy tissues. 

Overall it is becoming apparent that POSS incorporation into linear polymers or network resins in most cases can lead to nanocomposites with good thermal, mechanical, and fire-retardant properties. As a variety of POSS-containing monomers with functionalized substituents are synthesized, more nanocomposifes will be developed. Furthermore, this technology will be used to modify die matrix resins used for glass or carbon fiber composites. A reduction in the cost of POSS derivatives is key to the further development of apphcations in this area. 

More recent applications of POSS derivatives had been developed. These applications include diffusion permeable membranes,novel electrolytes for lithium batteries, ion mobility, gas-phase conformational analysis, insertion of N2 and O2 into T (n = 8, 10, 12) POSS framework, surface coating, low-k dielectric films, and self-assembled films.  

Laine and coworkers have studied a new class of nanocomposites containing multifunctional epoxy-POSS, octakis(glycidyldimethylsiloxy)octasilsesquioxane 

In addition, some new copolymers containing bis(amino)-functionalized POSS and oxazoline-functionalized POSS were synthesized by Wright et al. and Kim et al., respectively. Some new nanocomposites of POSS blending withPP, PC, PE, and PET have been developed by the Edwards AFB group and Ikeda s group. 

This work was supported by Grant F49620-02-1-0260 from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and an Air Force Office of scientific Research STTR 

Besides the apphcations described above, electrochemically deposited sol-gel films have also been used for fabricating solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fibers, nonlinear optical films, antireflection coatings, and electrocatalytic and 

Electrodeposited sol-gel-based composite films also showed optical applications. Gu and coworkers [85,86] co-electrodeposited Te0 -Si02 hybrid films from the TEOS-Te(i-PrO)4 niixed precursor for nonlinear optics. Te(IV) was partially reduced during electrodeposition, as characterized by EDX of the obtained films. The as-prepared films had third-order nonlinear susceptibility ix ) of 5.9 X10 to 4.29 X 10 esu, and the films had of 1.551 X 10 esu after posttreatment annealing. Mandler and coworkers co-electrodeposited TMOS with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on ITO and silver. The optimized films electrodeposited on ITO showed transparency of about 50% with nonlinear optical properties, and the optimized films electrodeposited on silver had specular reflectance lower than 0.5% in the wavelength range of 400-15 000 nm, which can be used as antireflection coatings. 

Benzyl alcohol anodic oxidation in water over TEMPO DE (V=1.4Vvs. Ag/AgCI) 

The thickness and morphology of the films can be well manipulated by deposition potential and time. In the case of cathodic electrodeposition, thin compact films are obtained at mild potentials, while thick porous films are deposited at very negative potentials due to the enhanced OH generation accompanied with intensive H2 evolution. Similarly, anodically electrodeposited sol-gel films are thickened by increasing the anodic potential. 

Sol-gel-based hybrid or composite films can also be electrodeposited. The coelectrodeposition of sol-gel with other materials is based on three different mechanisms according to the properties of the material. Electrochemically active materials, such as metal ions and monomers of conductive polymers, are electrodeposited with sol-gel via reduction or oxidation forming metal or conductive polymers. pH-responsive materials, such as chitosan or multiple sol-gel 

After successful implementation within the SACEM context [GEO 90 HEN 94 MAR 90], the coded safe proeessor was considered by all stakeholders in the field as an architecture ensuring safety of a software-based system. The principles implemented are independent of hardware architecture. 

The TVM (Train Vital Management) 430 is a signaling and speed control system in use on certain French high-speed railway lines. TVM 430 is an ATC (Automatic Train Control) system of the continuous type. TVM 430 is a system split between the ground and on board. 

TVM 430 can continuously transmit to the train all the information necessary for its movement and allows continuous monitoring so that the train remains within its assigned safety envelope. 

Dual redundancy is homogenous (same processing unit and same application) but there are asymmetries temporal lag, additional data involving the use of additional Boolean operators. It should be noted that the dial indicator is not a hardware vote but a SCP carrying out a software vote. The binary input/output cards are of the same technology as those used in the SACEM context (intrinsic safety and SCP encoding management). 

Modern synthetic organic chemistry has sufficient flexibility to constmct acyclic compounds selectively rather than aromatic compounds. Therefore, the direct construction of aromatic rings from acyclic precursors would provide one possible solution to the difficulty of responding to the growing demand for complex aromatic compounds. Combinations of the cyclization of acyclic precursors prepared in a selective manner and subsequent aromatization provide effective means to access the aromatic compounds desired without the formation of inseparable regioisomers. In this chapter we presented one synthetic approach that takes this course. Since RCM has become one of the most powerful cyclization reactions, great possibilities can be expected in this field. 

There is at present, however, significant room to improve catalysts for RCM. Particularly, activities and loading of catalysts should be improved. Many researchers 

With the combined simulation and analysis procedure outlined in this chapter, it is now possible to address the following types of questions  

Addressing these and other questions will do much to enhance our knowledge of SCDs and how to cope with their effects. 

In one example, Liu and coworkers have prepared a water-soluble fullerene assembly with a coordinated metal center via end-to-end intermolecular inclusion complexation of fullerene with a cyclodextrin dimer [74]. 

C6o-based polymers will furnish unprecedented materials in which the integration of fullerenes as a photo- and electroactive building blocks into the polymer structure should result in new properties for development of realistic applications. In this regard, after the discovery of fuUerenes, the scientific community is looking for real applications of this new carbon allotrope. Once more, the ease of process-ability and availability of polymers could be the key for application of fullerenes for practical purposes. 

8 Gnldi, D.M. and Martin, N. (eds) (2002) FuUerenes From Synthesis to Optoelectronic Properties, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 

Usually, the photoactive layer of bulk heterojunction solar cells is a physical blend [1-3] of a rr-conjugated polymer [12] and a fullerene derivative [13-17]. This bulk heterojunction structure inspired the design and preparation of donor 

Fullerene Polymers. Synthesis, Properties and Applications. Edited by Nazario Martin and Francesco Giacalone Copyright 2009 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN 978-3-527-32282-4 

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One has seen that the number of individual components in a hydrocarbon cut increases rapidly with its boiling point. It is thereby out of the question to resolve such a cut to its individual components instead of the analysis by family given by mass spectrometry, one may prefer a distribution by type of carbon. This can be done by infrared absorption spectrometry which also has other applications in the petroleum industry. Another distribution is possible which describes a cut in tei ns of a set of structural patterns using nuclear magnetic resonance of hydrogen (or carbon) this can thus describe the average molecule in the fraction under study. 

Utilization of LPG as motor fuel represents only a tiny fraction of the market, on the order of 30,000 t/an in France out of a total 3,000,000 t that is, about 1%. Globally, the fraction of LPG used in the transportation industry is on the order of 5% the other applications are essentially petrochemicals (25%) and the heating fuel sectors (70%). However noticeable openings in the LPG-fuel markets in some countries such as Japan (1.8 Mt), the United States (1.3 Mt), the Netherlands (0.9 Mt), Italy (0.8 Mt) and in certain regions (Latin America, Africa, and the Far East) have been observed for specialized vehicles such as taxis. 

Independently from the uses reviewed here, a few other applications of petroleum solvents are given below ... 

The method was applied for determination of the quality of the detection media on test pieces following the type testing of the European standard [4] in order to check the validity of the method. The other application was the determination of the visibility in dependance of the variations of the inspection parameters (application of the detection medium, magnetization, inclination, viewing conditions) in a range which may appear in the practical inspections. The results leads to conclusions on the visibility level which is a measure of the probability of recognition for the indication that means of the reliability of the method. 

There are many other applications. They include detemiination of the ratios of the partition coefficients P IPq) of solutes B and C in two different solvents by using the themiodynamic cycle ... 

The utility of a protein model depends upon the use to which it is put. In some cases, on< only interested in the general fold that the protein adopts and so a relatively low-resoluti structure is acceptable. For other applications, such as drug design, the model must be me more accurate, including the loops and side chains. In such cases, a poor model may often fa r worse than no model at all, as it can be seriously misleading. 

Because mesoscale methods are so new, it is very important to validate the results as much as possible. One of the best forms of validation is to compare the computational results to experimental results. Often, experimental results are not available for the system of interest, so an initial validation calculation is done for a similar system for which experimental results are available. Results may also be compared to any other applicable theoretical results. The researcher can verify that a sulficiently long simulation was run by seeing that the same end results are obtained after starting from several different initial configurations. 

The major uses of ethylene and propene are as starting materials for the preparation of polyethyl ene and polypropylene plastics fibers and films These and other applications will be described in Chapter 6... 

The molecular dynamics analyzes times steps, also called snapshots (coordinates and velocities), for display, averaging, and plotting (possibly from other applications). In the present release of HyperChem, two particular sources are relevant (the DDE interface allows the possibility of other generators of snapshots as well). The first source are time steps that are computed, displayed, and averaged. This is the normal real-time use of HyperChem molecular dyn amics. 

Although cold plasmas have benefits in removing interfering ions such as ArO+, they are not necessary for other applications where interferences are not a problem. Thus, in laboratories where a range of isotopes needs to be examined, the plasma has to be changed between hot and cold conditions, whereas it is much simpler if the plasma can be run under a single set of conditions. For this reason, some workers use warm plasmas, which operate between the hot and cold conditions. 

It is not the purpose of this book to discuss in detail the contributions of NMR spectroscopy to the determination of molecular structure. This is a specialized field in itself and a great deal has been written on the subject. In this section we shall consider only the application of NMR to the elucidation of stereoregularity in polymers. Numerous other applications of this powerful technique have also been made in polymer chemistry, including the study of positional and geometrical isomerism (Sec. 1.6), copolymers (Sec. 7.7), and helix-coil transitions (Sec. 1.11). We shall also make no attempt to compare the NMR spectra of various different polymers instead, we shall examine only the NMR spectra of different poly (methyl methacrylate) preparations to illustrate the capabilities of the method, using the first system that was investigated by this technique as the example. 

AutoDOCK Other applications Monte Carlo dockiag of ligands to receptors A. Olson at Scripps Institute... 

Other Applications. Polyacrylamides are used in many additional appUcations including soil modification (138), dust control (139,140), humidity control (141), protein purification (142), removal of barium from wastewater (143), and removal of arsenic from hydrocarbons (144). Polyacrylamides have been used for many years in sugar manufacture and textile treatment. 

Other Applications. Alkylhenzyl dim ethyl ammonium salts are made from alcohols in the find use as biocides and... 

Other Applications. There are a variety of flotation processes employing the principles described. 

Other applications of zirconium tetrafluoride are in molten salt reactor experiments as a catalyst for the fluorination of chloroacetone to chlorofluoroacetone (17,18) as a catalyst for olefin polymerization (19) as a catalyst for the conversion of a mixture of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and ammonia (in the ratio of 1 1 3 3) to pyridine (20) as an inhibitor for the combustion of NH CIO (21) in rechargeable electrochemical cells (22) and in dental applications (23) (see Dentalmaterials). 

Other Applications. The use of lower frequency energy (rf) has been explored for in heating of oil shale (qv) (209). Other power... 

Other Applications. PEO has also been used as an antistat additive (178,179), water-soluble packaging material of seeds and fertilizers (180), and rheology modifier in aqueous flexographic printing inks (qv) (181). 

Chemical Processing Intermediates and Other Applications. Monoethanolamine can be used as a raw material to produce ethylenedianiine. This technology has some advantages over the ethylene dichloride process in that salts are not a by-product. Additional reactions are requked to produce the higher ethyleneamines that are normally produced in the ethylene dichloride process. 

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