Scientific community

It takes a social network of collaboration and expertise, an interactive scientific community, to accomplish these diverse functions. 

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It was reahzed quite some decades ago that the amount of information accumulated by chemists can, in the long run, be made accessible to the scientific community only in electronic form in other words, it has to be stored in databases. This new field, which deals with the storage, the manipulation, and the processing of chemical information, was emerging without a proper name. In most cases, the scientists active in the field said they were working in "Chemical Information . However, as this term did not make a distinction between librarianship and the development of computer methods, some scientists said they were working in "Computer Chemistry to stress the importance they attributed to the use of the computer for processing chemical information. However, the latter term could easily be confused with Computational Chemistry, which is perceived by others to be more limited to theoretical quantum mechanical calculations. 

The CIF file format was quickly and widely adopted by the scientific community for at least two reasons [165J it was, and still is, endorsed by the lUCr and submission of data to the journal Acta Ciystallographka, Section C in a form conforming to CI F assures faster processing and hence faster publication of accepted papers. The current CIF file dictionary defines about 1200 data names, but it is still unable to represent all the details of the crystallographic measurements of macromolecules. Thus, yet another STAR-based data format is needed. 

In the first edition of this book I wrote, A major use of the Internet is for electronic mail, but extremely rapid growth is being observed in other areas, particularly the "World-Wide Web" (WWW).... Such a phrase seems an understatement despite the hype, the Internet has certainly made a dramatic impact, not least on the scientific community, where its... 

Because of its severe approximations, in using the Huckel method (1932) one ignores most of the real problems of molecular orbital theory. This is not because Huckel, a first-rate mathematician, did not see them clearly they were simply beyond the power of primitive mechanical calculators of his day. Huckel theory provided the foundation and stimulus for a generation s research, most notably in organic chemistry. Then, about 1960, digital computers became widely available to the scientific community. 

The final evaluation and judgment of any research and its significance comes from the wider scientific community upon its publication. In my research, I have always believed that there is a fundamental... 

Room temperature fusion reactions, albeit low probabiHty ones, are not a new concept, having been postulated in 1948 and verified experimentally in 1956 (22), in a form of fusion known as muon-catalized fusion. Since the 1989 announcement, however, international scientific skepticism has grown to the point that cold fusion is not considered a serious subject by most scientists. FoUow-on experiments, conducted in many prestigious laboratories, have failed to confirm the claims, and although some unexplained and intellectually interesting phenomena have been recorded, the results have remained irreproducable and, thus far, not accepted by the scientific community. 

A further consensus developed within the scientific community regarding the relative carcinogenicity of the different types of asbestos fibers. There is strong evidence that the genotoxic and carcinogenic potentials of asbestos fibers are not identical in particular mesothelial cancer is mostiy, if not exclusively, associated with amphibole fibers (43). 

In 1878 the term enzyme, Greek for "in yeast," was proposed (8). It was reasoned that chemical compounds capable of catalysis, ie, ptyalin (amylase from sahva), pepsin, and others, should not be called ferments, as this term was already in use for yeast cells and other organisms. However, proof was not given for the actual existence of enzymes. EinaHy, in 1897, it was demonstrated that ceU-free yeast extract ("zymase") could convert glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide in exactiy the same way as viable yeast cells. It took some time before these experiments and deductions were completely understood and accepted by the scientific community. 

In conclusion, the penicillin class of compounds continues to be actively studied by the scientific community. While the penicillins are an important part of the physician s armamentarium against infectious disease and will remain so for a considerable time, there is increasing emphasis on the study and use of fermentable penicillins as starting materials for the production of other /3-lactam antibiotics, leading to a wealth of heterocyclic chemistry. 

In October, 2005 the Ukrainian scientific community will celebrate the centenary of the birth of the outstanding Ukrainian scientist, Anatoly K. Babko for his expertise in analytical chemistry and in the chemistry of complex compounds. 

Although there has been a warming trend over the past 100 years, it is not necessarily due to the greenhouse effect. The concern of the scientific community about accelerating changes in the next 40 to 50 years is based not only on the recent observations of temperature compared with past observations, but also on the physical principles related to the greenhouse effect. 

Although the polysulfur macrocycles became more interesting to the scientific community after Pedersen s report of the crown compounds (see Chap. 1), examples of such structures may be found in the literature dating back some time. The first report of a macrocyclic polysulfide appears to be that by Ray who found in 1920 that when 1,2-dimercaptoethane and 1,2-dibromoethane were heated with alcoholic potassium hydrogen sulfide as shown in Eq. (6.2), triethylene trisulfide (2) and a substance presumed to be triethylene tetrasulfide (3) could be isolated. 

FIGURE l.l Hydrophobic interaction and reversed-phase chromatography (HIC-RPC). Two-dimensional separation of proteins and alkylbenzenes in consecutive HIC and RPC modes. Column 100 X 8 mm i.d. HIC mobile phase, gradient decreasing from 1.7 to 0 mol/liter ammonium sulfate in 0.02 mol/liter phosphate buffer solution (pH 7) in 15 min. RPC mobile phase, 0.02 mol/liter phosphate buffer solution (pH 7) acetonitrile (65 35 vol/vol) flow rate, I ml/min UV detection 254 nm. Peaks (I) cytochrome c, (2) ribonuclease A, (3) conalbumin, (4) lysozyme, (5) soybean trypsin inhibitor, (6) benzene, (7) toluene, (8) ethylbenzene, (9) propylbenzene, (10) butylbenzene, and (II) amylbenzene. [Reprinted from J. M. J. Frechet (1996). Pore-size specific modification as an approach to a separation media for single-column, two-dimensional HPLC, Am. Lab. 28, 18, p. 31. Copyright 1996 by International Scientific Communications, Inc.. Shelton, CT.]... 

When Mitchell first described his chemiosmotic hypothesis in 1961, little evidence existed to support it, and it was met with considerable skepticism by the scientific community. Eventually, however, considerable evidence accumulated to support this model. It is now clear that the electron transport chain generates a proton gradient, and careful measurements have shown that ATP is synthesized when a pH gradient is applied to mitochondria that cannot carry out electron transport. Even more relevant is a simple but crucial experiment reported in 1974 by Efraim Racker and Walther Stoeckenius, which provided specific confirmation of the Mitchell hypothesis. In this experiment, the bovine mitochondrial ATP synthasereconstituted in simple lipid vesicles with bac-teriorhodopsin, a light-driven proton pump from Halobaeterium halobium. As shown in Eigure 21.28, upon illumination, bacteriorhodopsin pumped protons... 

These three elements were first made during a 15-month period of intense activity from late 1994 to early 1996 at GSI, Darmstadt. They therefore post-date the deliberations of the lUPAC/IUPAP international working group, but the publications convincingly meet the stringent criteria for discovery elaborated by that group and have been widely accepted by the scientific community. So far, no names have been officially proposed or recommended for elements 110-112. 

The first system designed to perform these basics was developed in 1989 [2]. In early 1990, a first version of 5000 entries was made available to the scientific community on an IBM PC DOS-based program ChemBase. Now, some 10 years later, the database has increased to several tens of thousands of entries, and the entire system can be searched with the powerful ISIS software [3] as rapidly as it was searched on the old computer systems. 

Although the pipeline from the North Slope to the port of Valdez was the route chosen and completed in 1977, the scientific community preferred the trans-Alaska-Canada route its use would have prevented the Exxon Valdez ianker accident of 1989. 

The origins of the national laboratoiy network can be traced back to the late 1940s and the beginning of the atomic age. At the end of World War II, the scientific community, particularly the staffs from the Manhattan Project laboratories, lobbied Congress for civilian control of atomic power. Toward this end, the federal government transferred authority from the Army to the newly established Atomic Energy... 

Lubricants began to receive significantly more attention from the industrial and scientific community ill the mid-lSOOs with the introduction of mineral oils as lubricants. These proved to be effective lubricants the demand for their use in machinei y led to the development of many oil companies. 

Anon., safety practices for atomic absorption spectrophotometers. International Laboratory, 1974, May/June, 63. International Scientific Communications Inc, Fairfield, Conn., USA... 

The following paper, the fifth one, marks something of a shift in emphasis. In a long paper co-authored with John Worrall from the London School of Economics (LSE), we set out to examine just how important predictions were in the acceptance of the periodic table by the scientific community of the late 1800s. This question has nothing to do with quantum mechanics which did not exist until 1905, even if one just considers the very early work of Max Planck. 

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