This course

My aim in this course is to derive the key ideas of inorganic chemistry from chemical observations. I do this by following the reasoning of chemists who have developed these ideas. 

Many instructors take a different approach. They start with the quantum theory of atoms and molecules, and deduce the key ideas from this. The quantum theory enables the energy of an atom or molecule to be calculated, and the average motion of the electrons in it. With the help of modem computers, it gives remarkably accurate results. 

The quantum theory, however, is essentially a physical theory, developed to explain observations like the atomic spectrum of hydrogen. Chemical ideas do not emerge from it easily. The theory is also very mathematical. Most chemists have to accept the results of quantum-mechanical calculations on trust. My approach avoids these problems. While I bring in the quantum theory where it is helpful, my treatment is essentially chemical. This makes for an easier introduction to the subject, and leads, I believe, to a better understanding of the key ideas, and the chemical thinking behind them. 

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Make a list of good laboratory practices for the lab accompanying this course (or another lab if this course does not have an associated laboratory). Explain the rationale for each item on your list. 

It is important when appraising by (NPV) and (DCFRR) not to consider the past in profitabihty estimations. Good money should never follow bad. It is unwise to continue to put money into a project if a more profitable project exists, even though this course may involve scrapping an expensive plant. Other considerations may, however, outweigh purely financiaf criteria in a particular case. 

Equity is available from two sources. First, the company can sell new stock which, if in the form of ordinary shares, carries no interest payment. Although this course appears cheap, its use for projects which do not increase earnings, at least to a compensatory level, is usually inadvisable. This leaves retained earnings as the most likely source of equity for the present project. 

I first became interested in the subject of cycles when I went on sabbatical leave to MIT, from Cambridge England to Cambridge Mass. There I was asked by the Director of the Gas Turbine Laboratory, Professor E.S.Taylor, to take over his class on gas turbine cycles for the year. The established text for this course consisted of a beautiful set of notes on cycles by Professor (Sir) William Hawthorne, who had been a member of Whittle s team. Hawthorne s notes remain the best starting point for the subject and I have called upon them here, particularly in the early part of Chapter 3. 

The propagating polymer then terminates, producing an isotactic polypropylene. Linear polyethylene occurs whether the reaction takes place by insertion through this sequence or, as explained earlier, by ligand occupation of any available vacant site. This course, however, results in a syndiotactic polypropylene when propylene is the ligand. 

From an analytic point of view, the techniques of conventional thermodynamics, which describes systems whose microscopic dynamics is reversible, may be formally applied to reversible CA as well. We shall, in fact, follow this course in chapter 4. 

Almost certainly, this is your first college course in chemistry perhaps it is your first exposure to chemistry at any level. Unless you are a chemistry major, you may wonder why you are taking this course and what you can expect to gain from it. To address that question, it will be helpful to look at some of the ways in which chemistry contributes to other disciplines. 

We hope that when you complete this course you too will be convinced of the importance of chemistry in today s world. We should, however, caution you on one point. Although we will talk about many of the applications of chemistry, our main concern will be with the principles that govern chemical reactions. Only by mastering these principles will you understand the basis of the applications referred to in the preceding paragraphs. 

We shall try to find the answers in this course, not through words alone, but through experience. No one can completely convey through words the excitement and interest of scientific... 

This proposal is called the atomic theory. As with any theory, its value depends upon its ability to aid us in explaining facts of nature. There is no more valuable theory in science than the atomic theory. We shall use it throughout this course. Later, in Chapter 14, we shall review many of the types of experiments which cause chemists to regard the atomic theory as the cornerstone of their science. 

At the beginning of this course you were a new tenant. You were told that chemists believe in atoms and you were asked to accept this proposal tentatively until you yourself knew the evidence for it. Since that time, we have used the atomic theory continuously in our discussions of chemical phenomena. The atomic theory passes the test of a good theory it is useful in explaining a large number of experimental observations. We have become convinced there are atoms. 

The chemical system of even the smallest plant or animal is one of extreme complexity. It has a multitude of compounds, many of polymeric nature, existing in hundreds of interlocking equilibrium reactions whose rates are influenced by a number of specific catalysts. We will not try to study such a system. Instead we will show some parts of it, some examples that have been well studied and which illustrate the applicability of chemical principles. All of our knowledge of biochemistry has come through use of the same basic ideas and the same experimental method you have learned in this course. 

Figure 1 shows the simulation of a galaxy observed with a PSF which is typical of an adaptive optics system. The noisy blurred image in Fig. 1 will be used to compare various image reconstruction methods described in this course. 

We have seen how to properly solve for the inverse problem of image de-convolution. But all the problems and solutions discussed in this course are not specific to image restoration and apply for other problems. 

The text has its roots in courses on biogeochemical cycles offered at the University of Washington and at the University of Stockholm. The course at the University of Washington was started by two of the authors (Charlson and Murray), and an essential part of the course has been visits by faculty from other disciplines. Many of the chapters in this text spring from materials prepared for those presentations. Some of the authors are former students in this course. 

Sub-micro representations are used extensively in teaching the mole concept, stoichiometiy, solubihty and chemical equilibrium at UCT. Having students draw and annotate chemical diagrams representing chemical phenomena at the sub-micro level can provide some insight into their understanding of chemistiy at the macro level. The following examples are typical of the questions used to probe links between the sub-micro and symbohc levels of representations as part of the assessment practice for this course. For example, students were asked to balance the equation shown in Fig. 8.7. 

Now consider the hypothetical problem of trying to teach the physics of space flight during the period in time between the formulation of Kepler s laws and the publication of Newton s laws. Such a course would introduce Kepler s laws to explain why all spacecraft proceed on elliptical orbits around a nearby heavenly body with the center of mass of that heavenly body in one of the focal points. It would further introduce a second principle to describe course corrections, and define the orbital jump to go from one ellipse to another. It would present a table for each type of known spacecraft with the bum time for its rockets to go from one tabulated course to another reachable tabulated course. Students completing this course could run mission control, but they would be confused about what is going on during the orbital jump and how it follows from Kepler s laws. 

Now we are in a position to compare how many valence electrons the atom is supposed to have (in this case, four) with how many valence electrons it actually has (in this case, four). Since these numbers are the same, the carbon atom has no formal charge. This will be the case for most of the atoms in the structures you will draw in this course. But in some cases, there will be a difference between the number of electrons the atom is supposed to have and the number of electrons the atom actually has. In those cases, there will be a formal charge. So let s see an example of an atom that has a formal charge. 

In this chapter, we will see how to predict the 3D shape of molecules. This is important because it limits much of the reactivity that you will see in the second half of this course. For molecules to react with each other, the reactive parts of the molecules must be able to get close in space. If the geometry of the molecules prevents them from getting close, then there cannot be a reaction. This concept is called sterics. 

There will be many times in the second half of this course when you will be trying to determine which way a reaction will proceed from two possible outcomes. Many times, you will choose one outcome, because the other outcome has steric problems to overcome (the geometry of the molecules does not permit the reactive sites to get close together). In fact, you will learn to make decisions like this as soon as you learn your first reactions Sn2 versus SnI reactions. Now that we know why geometry is so important, we need to brush up on some basic concepts. 

Fortunately, you do not need to learn all of these rules, because we deal with very simple molecules in this course. You need to learn only the rules that allow you to name small molecules. This chapter focuses on most of the rules you need to name simple molecules. 

For purposes of this course, we will define a stereocenter as a carbon atom with four different groups on it. For example. 

Mechanisms are your key to success in this course. If you can master the mechanisms, you will do very well in this class. If you don t master mechanisms, you will do poorly in this class. What are mechanisms and why are they so important ... 

You must know the stereochemistry and regiochemistry for every reaction, and each of them is contained within the mechanism. In the problems above, you were told what to expect for the stereochemistry and the regiochemistry. When you are doing problems in youi textbook and on your exams, you will be expected to know what these pieces of information are simply from looking at the reagents. A solid understanding of every mechanism will be an invaluable asset to you in this course. 

This step is simply an Sn2, and therefore, must be a back-side attack. In other words, the attacking bromide ion must come from behind (from behind the bridge), and therefore, we get an anti addition. There are some alkenes for which a syn addition predominates. Clearly, a different mechanism is operating in those cases. For the alkenes that you will encounter in this course, this reaction will always be an anti ad-dihon, proceeding via the mechaihsm that we showed. 

The second example above is called metfl-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA). It is perhaps the most common example in this course. Whenever you see MCPBA, you should immediately recognize it as an example of a peroxy acid. Similarly, whenever you see RCO3H, you should also see it as the generic formula for a peroxy acid. 

There are many ways to get a negative charge on a carbon atom. Later in this course, you will spend a lot of time learning about special C compounds. For now, we will just learn about one such compound, called a Grignard reagent ... 

The mechanism for this insertion of magnesium is beyond the scope of this course, and therefore, we will not go into it. For now, we should just know that we can insert Mg into a C—X bond (where X is Cl, Br, or 1). Here are some examples ... 

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