Europe

The European Federation of Agricultural Workers (EFA) represent the interests of two million agricultural workers throughout the European Union. In 1996 it conducted a survey among its members and over 1230 responses from individuals were analysed (Table 7). The conclusion was that the survey clearly shows the continuing hazards faced by those who work with pesticides on a daily basis, and the need for better training, increased health surveillance and above all, safer products and more non-chemical alternatives. 

Ruelle, P., Health and safety concerns from European survey of operators. Pesticides News 36, June 1997, page 7 

The sustainability of municipal solid waste (MSW) management has been predominantly driven in Europe. The European waste 

Waste generally means any substance or object which the holder discards, intends to or is required to discard, and waste management means the collection, transport, recovery and disposal of waste, and includes the supervision of such operations and aftercare of disposal sites [1]. 

Later it was amended to 22.5 wt% for plastics, which included material that was recycled back into plastic with no distinction among the various streams of plastic waste, such as industrial, commercial, office, service or household [3]. 

The European Commission s Thematic Strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste established new aims and objectives for EU waste policy. In addition, it put forward a vision of an EU recycling society as its long-term goal [4]. 

by the INETI and INECI research centres. Other work includes a contract with a Portuguese company aimed at commercialisation aspects of the PEM work. The Portuguese Foundation of Science and Technology is responsible for financing national projects, namely on mathematical modelling applied to DMFC, carried out by the University of Oporto and at the research Institute INETI. 

Japan work aimed at fundamental R D for fuel cell development - basic research to achieve drastic upgrades in materials and components - is conducted by national institutes (e.g. the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology). The budget allocations for 2001-2003 total 1.8 billion the 2003 allocation is 726 million. 

The EU also requires that fuels used for transportation contain 5.75% biofuels by 2010, and 10% by 2020. The Union also provides a guarantee to purchase biofuel crops at prices that exceed the market value of wheat. This is likely to result in an increase in the cost of food items. At the end of 2007, deep cuts in automobile emissions and a penalty for not meeting them were proposed. The cut proposed is from 146 to 120 g/km of C02, and the penalty, beginning in 2012, is 20 /g, rising to 95 /g by 2015. 

Another European initiative is to regulate airline emissions by charging a carbon tax for emissions that exceed the allowed limit. The cap-and-trade approach would allow airlines to buy or sell the difference between their actual emissions and the limit. Because of the resistance of the airlines and the lack of international standards, it will probably take years before such a system is implemented. 

Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden have been taxing carbon emissions since the 1990s. The results have varied with the tax collection methods. In Finland, Norway, and Sweden the carbon taxes had little impact on emissions, as industry just included them in its cost of operation while the governments treated these taxes as general revenue. In Denmark, the collected carbon taxes were invested in subsidizing the development of alternative energy technologies, and as a consequence the per capita emission by 2005 dropped below the 1990 level. 

On the other hand, because of record high oil and natural gas prices and because of the aversion to nuclear energy, some European power plants (Enel) are converting from natural gas or oil to coal. In addition, some 50 coal-fired power plants are planned to be built in Europe during the next 5 years. 

Other European nations have also taken some concrete steps. For example, England is planning to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 26% by 2020. Britain s Minister for the Environment Hilary Benn said that the United States must end its opposition to legally binding target limits on carbon emissions. French President Nicolas Sarkozy said, Collective action is imperative.  

The principles and guidelines for GMP for human medicinal products were laid down in EU Directive 91/356/EEC on 13 June 1991. The basic requirements are  

Manufacture of veterinary medicinal products other than immunologicals. 

Native gold and secondary minerals were identified in the quartz veins from Bastogne, 

The Generation Four International Fomm (GIF) was started in 2002. The supercritical water cooled reactor (SCWR) was taken as one of the six generation 4 reactors. Canada serves as the lead country. The activities are seen in the GIF home page [147]. Canadian researchers are also carrying out studies of a pressure tube type SCWR [148-151]. 

---

Extensive compilation of vapor-liquid equilibrium data, particularly from Eastern Europe. 

This three-volume history of the events which transferred world power to Western Europe - and founded Modern History - has been universally acclaimed as a masterpiece. 

Vapor pressure specifications for gasolines in Europe (Distribution by class). 

The gasoline end point should not exceed a given value, currently established for Europe at 215°C. In fact the presence of too-heavy fractions leads to incomplete combustion and to a number of accompanying problems ... 

The unleaded premium fuels appeared in Europe and France in 1988. In 1993, they represented 40% of the French and 47% of the European Community markets. They are divided into three types. 

In the United States, the different categories of motor fuels are not defined as they are in Europe by minimum RON and MON values, but by a combination... 

The base products, TEL and TML, are liquids having boiling points of 205° and 110° respectively. The contents of additives used are usually expressed in grams of lead per liter of fuel in the past they have reached 0.85 g Pb/1. These concentrations are still found in some of the countries of Africa. Elsewhere, when part or all of the motor fuel pool contains lead, the concentrations are much smaller. Thus in Western Europe they no longer exceed 0.15 g Pb/1. 

The gradual reduction and ultimate elimination of lead has seen considerable effort by the refiner to maintain the octane numbers at satisfactory levels. In Europe, the conventional unleaded motor fuel, Eurosuper, should have a minimum RON of 95 and a minimum MON of 85. These values were set in 1983 as the result of a technical-economic study called RUFIT (Rational Utilization of Fuels in Private Transport). A compromise was then possible between refining energy expenses and vehicle fuel consumption (Anon., 1983). 

As of 1 July 1991 all new vehicles registered in Europe should have been adapted for using Eurosuper. However, another quality of unleaded fuel had already appeared in 1988 and has since been well established in some countries, notably France. It is called Superplus, the highest octane level, RON 98, MON 88. Superplus is suitable for vehicles having catalytic converters as well as for a large part of the former automotive fleet requiring an RON of 97 and higher. 

In France, Superplus represented in 1993 about 90% of the demand for unleaded gasoline which itself has attained 40% of the total sales. Remember that this is an unusual situation for Europe because in most other countries Eurosuper has the major share. 

To the refiner, the question of octane numbers in future gasolines is of primary importance because it determines the course of operations, the development or on the contrary the stagnation of such and such a process. Table 5.12 thus gives an example of the typical composition by origin and concentration of different base constituents of three grades of the most common motor fuels distributed today in Europe conventional premium gasoline at 0.15 g Pb/1, Eurosuper and Superplus. 

In Europe, the classification of diesel fuels according to cold behavior is shown in Tables 5.13 and 5.14. The products are divided into ten classes, six for temperate climates, four for arctic zones. 

The European specifications require a minimum cetane number of 49 for the temperate climatic zones and the French automotive manufacturers require at least 50 in their own specifications. The products distributed in France and Europe are usually in the 48-55 range. Nevertheless, in most Scandinavian countries, the cetane number is lower and can attain 45-46. This situation is taken into account in the specifications for the arctic zone (Table 5.14). In the United States and Canada, the cetane numbers for diesel fuels are most often less than 50. 

The stocks used for jet fuel production come almost essentially from direct distillation of crude oil. They correspond to the fraction distilled between 145 and 240°C, more or less expanded or contracted according to the circumstances. The yield of such a cut depends largely on the nature of the crude but is always larger than the demand for jet fuel which reaches about 6% of the petroleum market in Europe. For the refiner, the tightest specifications are ... 

Regarding product characteristics, European specifications were established in 1992. They concern mainly the motor octane number (MON) that limits the olefin content and which should be higher than 89, and the vapor pressure, tied to the C3/C4 ratio which should be less than 1550 mbar at 40°C (ISO 4256). On the other hand, to ensure easy vehicle start-ups, a minimum vapor pressure for winter has been set which is different for each country and depends on climatic conditions. Four classes. A, B, C, and D, are thus defined in Europe with a minimum vapor pressure of 250 mbar, respectively, at -10°C (A), -5 C (B), 0°C (C) and -t-10°C (Z)). France has chosen class A. 

Until 1992, the maximum sulfur level, identical for diesel fuel and homeheating oil, was 0.3% for all of Europe. Nevertheless, certain countries had... 

The idea of clean motor and heating fuels, that is, those having an improved impact on the environment, has been developing since the beginning of the 1980s, first in the United States. It has since then appeared in Europe and will most certainly have its impact in the rest of the world beyond the year 2000. 

We have previously stated that the sulfur content of diesel fuel will be limited in Europe to 0.2% as of 1 October 1994 and to 0.05% as of 1 October 1996. 

The main justification for diesel fuel desulfurization is related to particulate emissions which are subject to very strict rules. Part of the sulfur is transformed first into SO3, then into hydrated sulfuric acid on the filter designed to collect the particulates. Figure 5.21 gives an estimate of the variation of the particulate weights as a function of sulfur content of diesel fuel for heavy vehicles. The effect is greater when the test cycle contains more high temperature operating phases which favor the transformation of SO2 to SO3. This is particularly noticeable in the standard cycle used in Europe (ECE R49). 

In Europe and elsewhere in the world, the trend towards reformulated gasoline has scarcely begun it is very likely, however, that it will be felt around the beginning of 2000, with more or less profound impact on the refining industry. 

The study of the relations between diesel fuel composition and pollution caused by the diesel engine is the focus of considerable attention, particularly in Europe where this line of thought has been rapidly developing in recent years. 

The classification of motor oils has not been completed in the ISO standard because the technical differences between motors in different parts of the world, particularly Europe and the United States, make the implementation of a single system of classification and specifications very difficult. In practice, different systems coming from national or international organizations are used. The best known is the SAE viscosity classification from the Society of Automotive Engineers, developed in the United States. 

The 15W40 or 15W50 oils are the most widespread in temperate climates (Western Europe), while the 20W40 or 20W50 oils are used in relatively warm climates (Mediterranean countries. Middle East, South America). The 5W or lOW grades are used in countries having severe winters such as Scandinavia and Canada. 

In Europe, the CEC (Coordinating European Council for the development of performance tests for lubricants and engine fuels) federalizes the GEC and its counterparts in other European countries. 

AFNOR, Tour Europe, cedex 7 - 92049 PARIS LA DfiFENSE - Tel. (1) 42915555. 

Finished product specifications and future constraints for Europe. 

Design Institute for Physical Property Data dimethylformamide dimethylsulfoxide I distribution octane number Economic Commission for Europe j European Economic Community i (Communaute Economique Europeenne)... 

The demand for domestic gas changes seasonally in temperate climates, and production levels reflect this change. For example a sudden cold day in Northern Europe causes a sharply increased requirement for gas, and gas sales contracts in this region will allow the purchaser to demand an instant increase (up to a certain maximum) from the supplier. To safeguard for seasonal swings, imported gas is frequently stored in underground... 

There are currently more than 6,500 oil and gas installations located on the continental shelves of some 53 countries. About 4,000 of these are in the US Gulf of Mexico, 950 in Asia, 700 in the Middle East and 400 in Europe. 

In Austria, as well as all over Europe, the first and repetition tests of all pressure equipments including steam drums are required for security reasons within fixed time intervals. These repetitive inspections are done differently in the most European countries, but most time these inspections include, according to the European Pressure Equipment Directive" and the specific national law any kind of over-pressurisation (e.g. hydrotest) and visual inside inspection. 

Teterev, Yu.G., Proc.Regional Mtg. Nuclear Energy in Central Europe Present and Perspectives , Nucl.Soc. of Slovenia, Portoroz, Slovenia (June 1993) 598... 

The first approach - quality through NDT laboratory accreditation - is widely used both in Western and Eastern Europe and is realized on rules and procedures specified in the EN 45000 series and EAL -G15 Accreditation for Non-Destructive Testing Laboratories . 

In 1991 a new independent state - Ukraine, appeared on the map of Europe. Before describing the state of affairs in non-destruetive testing (NDT) of items and eonstructions in our eountry, we would like briefly to present the industry of Ukraine and its potential. 

In the coal-mining industry, more than 300 mines are operated in three coal-mining regions Ukraine produces only 5 5 million tons of its own oil, but the ramified network of oil pipelines supports the operation of 10 petroleum plants. The Ukrainian gas pipelines transport the Russian gas to Central and Western Europe. 

As with synchrotron x-rays, neutron diffraction facilities are available at only a few major research institutions. There are research reactors with diffraction facilities in many countries, but the major ones are in North America, Europe and Australia. The are fewer spallation sources, but there are major ones in the United States and the United Kingdom. 

---