Future perspective

It is clear that recombinant DNA technology has had a major impact on commercial production of L-aspartic acid. With the exception of a thermophilic process, there would appear little need for further development of a better enzyme, as the currently available biocatalysts are extremely cost efficient [44,45]. Future development will be aimed at L-aspartic acid processes that produce less waste and use cheaper starting materials. Current L-aspartic acid processes require bromine as the catalyst for the isomerization of maleic acid to fumaric acid, while 

Aspartate from Maleic Acid Using Maleate Isomerase 

Borgeson, N. S., Bizzari, S. N., Janshekar, H., Takei, N. CEH Chemical Marketing Research Report Amino Acids. In Chemical Economics Handbook SRI Iterna-tional, 1995 Vol. 502.5000 A pp. 502.5004 C-502.5004 F. 

Chibata, I., Tosa, T., Sato, T. Aspartic Acid. Ex Progress in Industrial Microbiology Aida, K., Chibata, I.,Nakayama, K., Takinami, K., Yamada, H., Eds. Elsevier New York, 1986 Vol. 24 pp. 144. 

Carlton, G. J. The Enzymatic Production of L-Aspartic Acid. In Biocatalytic Production of Amino Acids and Derivatives Rozzell, J. D., Wagner, F., Eds. Carl Hanser Verlag, Publishers Munich, 1992 pp. 4. 

There is still a big gap in our knowledge regarding (1) the effect of diet or dietary components on the morphology, cell kinetics, metabolism, and physiology of the large bowel (2) the mechanistic aspects of the modulating effect of diet on colon tumorigenesis and (3) the effect of diet on early preneoplastic events. In future studies, a conscious effort should be made to use well defined experimental conditions with a minimal number of variables. 

Due to the rapidly increased production cost of fossil (petroleum)-based chemicals, fermentatively produced fumaric acid from renewable resources could replace current petrochemically based maleic acid as unsaturated dibasic acid mainly in the polyester resin industry but also in medicine and food industries in the nearby future. However, this can be achieved only if the bio-based production process for fumaric acid would be economically competitive with the current fossil-based process. This change requires the improvement of the large, past-operating fermentation processes for acid production in many aspects, such as production of free acid at a low pH, product yield and productivity, cheap and renewable raw material, and problems related to cell morphology and mass transfer. 

This book promotes the concept of the biorefinery, which is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery concept is analogous to today s petroleum refineries, which produce multiple fuels and products from petroleum (Sauer et al., 2008). The classical corn wet milling is an example for the basis of the biorefinery concept whereby one raw material is processed into various products. 

To realize the concept of biorefinery, renewable resources need to be converted efficiently by biological means to several commodity chemicals. From the standpoint of the microbiologist who is responsible for the operation of this biorefinery, it is desirable to have only one microorganism in the biorefinery which is versatile enough to produce the various products. This situation is preferable to the (impossible) situation where different microorganisms are utilized simultaneously at the same production plant. 

Although ASA has been marketed for more than 30 years, it is still a product with a considerable potential for new applications owing to the well-balanced cost-property relationship. The strength of ASA lies in the unique combination of its good weatherability, toughness, surface properties and resistance to chemicals. To be successful as an ASA supplier in the future the following prerequisites seem to be mandatory back integration for the main raw materials, innovative process and development, development of new applications coupled with a reliable and skilled technical customer support service. 

Willersinn H., Otto H.-W., Paul R., Schuster L. BASF Aktiengesellschaft, DE 

Hambrecht J., Schmitt B., Rebafka W., Stephan R., Schwaab J. BASF Aktiengesellschaft, DE 3 134103. 

McKee G. E., Koch J., Fischer W., Rosenau B., Czauderna B. BASF Aktiengesellschaft, DE 19 508312. 

Laber W., Gottschalk A., Schwaab J., Jeckel G., Mosthaf H. BASF Aktiengesellschaft, DE 2037 784. 

With respect to clinical applications of bacteriocins, there have been some promising recent advances, and several bacteriocins are now being developed for human applications. The in vivo activity of bacteriocins against pathogens has been demonstrated for several bacteriocins of both Class I and Class II in animal models. Hopefully, the development of such bacteriocins will move into clinical trials, to be approved for use in human therapeutics in the near future. 

Krockel, L., and Hill, C. (1995). Bacteriocins modes of action and potentials in food preservation and control of food poisoning. Int J Food Microbiol 28(2), 169-185. 

Arnison, P.G., Bibb, M.J., Bierbaum, G., et al. (2013). Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide natural products overview and recommendations for a universal nomenclature. Natural Product Rep 30, 108-160. 

Asaduzzaman, S.M., Nagao, J., lida, H., et al. (2009). Nukacin ISK-1, a bacteriostatic lantibiotic. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53, 3595-3598. 

Balciunas, E.M., Castillo Martinez, F.A., Todorov, S.D., et al. (2013). Novel biotechnological applications of bacteriocins A review. Food Control 32,134-142. 

In this chapter, different properties of nonlinear behavior in lanthanide complexes have been overviewed, including brief examination of their optical emission and excitation spectra. A perception of the importance of photophysical relationships of molecular complexes to these phenomena has also been conveyed. 

Special thanks go to Prof. Pignataro for the opportunity of writing this article as well as to the committee members of the first European Chemistry Congress and to the Royal Society of Chemistry for the conference award. 

The author wishes to acknowledge Prof. W.T. Wong for his invaluable comments. Gratitude also goes to Prof. P. A. Tanner, Prof. D. L. Phillips, Dr. W. M. Kwok, and Prof. K. W. Cheah for their excellent collaboration as well as all research members who contributed to this work as co-authors in some of the publications that are reviewed here. This work was supported by The University of Hong Kong. 

10 Lemmetyinen, H., Vuorimaa, E., Jutila, A., Mukkala, V-M., Takalo, H. and Kankare,). (2000) Luminescence The Journal of Biological and Chemical Luminescence, 15, 341-50. 

20 Di Bartolo, B. (1992) Optical Properties of Excited States in Solids, Plenum. 

Financial support from the ACS-PRF, NSF, NIH, and ONR is greatly appreciated. The author thanks the students, postdoctoral fellows, and collaborators who have contributed to this research. 

Ariga K, Kunitake T. Molecular recognition at air-water and related interfaces complementary hydrogen bonding and multisite interaction. Acc Chem Res 1998 31 371-378. 

Beijer FH, Kooijman H, Spek AL, Sijbesma RP, Meijer EW. Self-complementarity achieved through quadruple hydrogen bonding. Angew Chem Int Ed Eng 1998 37 75-78. 

Bisson AP, Carver FJ, Eggleston DS, Haltiwanger RC, Hunter CA, Livingstone DL, McCabe JF, Rotger C, Rowan AE. Synthesis and recognition properties of aromatic amide oligomers molecular zippers. J Am Chem Soc 2000 122 8856-8868. 

Drugs From Discovery to Approval, Second Edition, By Rick Ng Copyright 2009 John Wiley Sons, Inc. 

The research described in this chapter was partially supported by the Ground-based Research Program for Space Utilization promoted by the Japan Space Forum and Grant-in Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Area (No. 18033059 Chemistry of Coordination Space ) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture, Japan. 

8 Hecht, S. and Frechet, J.M.J. (2001) Angewandte Chemie-Intemational Edition, 40, 74. 

10 Taneva, S., Ariga, K., Tagaki, W. and Okahata, Y. (1989) Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 131, 561. 

16 Lvov, Y., Ariga, K., Ichinose, I. and Kunitake, T. (1995) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 117, 

Science is entering into the nanoscale world, and the organization of microscale or nanoscale biomaterial structures on surfaces has been demonstrated and is a subject of extensive research effort.184,851 Single biomaterial molecules have been imaged on surfaces,186 871 and the individual affinity interactions of biomaterials probed at the molecular level.188,891 While the different scanning microscopy techniques provide useful means to image and manipulate biomaterials on surfaces, the use of the near-field scanning optical microscope (NSOM) 9 ) in the activation of photoswitchable biomaterials on surfaces should be emphasized specifically. One 

Special gratitude is expressed to the students and research associates who participated in this research project. Their names appear in the reference list. Their skill and enthusiasm turned fundamental thoughts into a mature research field. Parts of the research were supported by The Israel Science Foundation. 

Willner in Biological Applications of Photochemical Switches, Bioorganic Photochemistry, Vol. 2 (Ed. H. Morrison), Wiley, New York, 1993 pp. 1-110. 

Boulton, G. Baker, C. Taylor) Humana Press, Totowa, N.J. 1992, pp. 369-396. 

Guglielmetti in Photochromism Molecules and Systems (Eds. H. Durr, H. Bouas-Laurent) Elslevier, Amsterdam, 1990, p. 314—466. 

Advice for treatment decisions based on specific genetic conditions were found in four Pis, namely that prolastin (a 1-proteinase inhibitor) is not indicated in patients with certain otl -antitrypsin deficiency phenotypes, trastuzumab indicated only in patients with overexpression of the HER2 protein, tretinoin, and imatinib are to be given only in patients with either a specific subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia or Philadelphia chromosome-positive chronic myeloid leukemia, respectively. 

Work in the authors laboratories was supported in part by grants from the Swiss National Science Foundation (U.A. Meyer) and by the Pharmacogenetics Research Network Grant (U-01-GM061373) from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, Bethesda, MD, U.S.A. (D. A. Flockhart). 

Paez JG, Janne PA, Lee JC, Tracy S, Greulich H, Gabriel S, Herman P, Kaye FJ, Lindeman N, Boggon TJ, Naoki K, Sasaki H, Fujii Y, Eck MJ, Sellers WR, Johnson BE, Meyerson M. EGFR mutations in lung cancer correlation with clinical response to gefitinib therapy. Science 2004 304 1497-1500. 

Baum M. Tamoxifen—the treatment of choice. Why look for alternatives Br J Cancer 1998 78 (suppl 4) 1-4. 

Freedman AN, Graubard BI, Rao SR, McCaskill-Stevens W, Ballard-Barbash 

Much remains to be done in the field of bioelectrochemistry, although it has already demonstrated great possibilities in elucidating biological reactions. The topics described can be consulted in greater depth in the recommended literature. 

Milazzo (ed.), Topics in bioelectrochemistry and bioenergetics, Wiley, 1978, 5 volumes. 

Gutmann and H. Keyser (ed.), Modern bioelectrochemistry, Plenum, New York, 1986. 

Turner, I. Karube, and G. S. Wilson (ed.), Biosensors, fundamentals and applications, Oxford University Press, 1987. 

Sparnaay, The electrical double layer, 1972, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 1-19. 

There continue to be rapid technological advances in the field of bioanalysis which are focused on making the processes of R D in diagnostics and drug discovery more successful and efficient, with the aspiration to make processes and products less labour-intensive and more cost-effective. The following subsections provide some highlights and indications of up-and-coming approaches which may be state-of-the-art today but matter-of-fact tomorrow. 

Understanding Bioanalytical Chemistry. Principles and applications Victor A. Gault and Neville H. McClenaghan 

You have prepared 180 ml of a 2.8 M stock buffer solution, but you require 0.95 M. How many millilitres of the 0.95 M solution can you make  

Which of the following disorders is associated with defective transport of transition metals  

Which of the following can comprise the reference electrode in a pH measuring device  

Recent advances in supramolecular chemistry have made available a wide range of synthetic supramolecular receptors for ionic and molecular species giving rise to a variety of interesting binding and structural motifs that occur both in solution and in the solid state. Extraction studies within the supramolecular realm continue to show strong potential for making significant contributions to both basic and applied research. At present, interest has been mainly focused on three main topics  

Finally, the application of new extractants such as hyperbranched polymers [53] and the use of ionic liquids [54] are developments which tend to aid and promote supramolecular host-guest complexation and will undoubtedly further stimulate the development of more efficient and selective extraction systems. 

3 Osses, N., Pearson, J.D., Yudilevich. D.L., and Jarvis, S.M. (1996) Hypoxanthine enters human vascular endothelial cells (ECV 304) via the nitrobenzylthioinosine-insensitive equilibrative nucleoside transporter. The Biochemical Journal. 

Vickers, M.F, Sundaram, M., Cass, C.F., Baldwin, S.A., and Young, J.D. (2002) Functional and molecular characterization of nucieobase transport by recombinant human and rat equilibrative nucleoside transporters 1 and 2. Chimeric constructs reveal a role for the FNT2 helix 5-6 region in nucieobase translocation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, m (28), 24938-24948. 

and Baldwin, S.A. (1997) Cloning of a hiunan nucleoside transporter implicated in the cellular uptake of adenosine and 

1 Griffiths, M., Yao, S.Y., Abidi, F., Phillips, S.E., Cass, C.E., Young, J.D., and Baldwin, S.A. (1997) Molecular cloning and characterization of a niti obenzylthioinosine-insensitive (ei) equilibrative nucleoside transporter from human placenta. The Biochemical Journal, 328 (Pt 3), 739-743. 

Utilization of Input from Emerging Technologies/Computational Biology/ Bioinformatics. Eunctional criteria or activity—activity relationships analysis of 

2008)—all offer some insight of integrative approaches for the most effective strategy for predicting and screening potential carcinogens for health and environmental protection. 

Disclaimer. The scientific views expressed in this chapter are solely those of the authors and do not necessary reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 

Araujo, L., Lobenberg, R., and Kreuter, J. (1999). Influence of the surfactant concentration on the body distribution of nanoparticles. J Drug Target 6, 373-385. 

and Argus, M. F. (1982). Chemical Induction of Cancer, Vol. IIIA Aliphatic Carcinogens, Academic Press, New York. 

Further to this, the increasing activities in the field of biosensors based upon CNT-FETs could strongly benefit from the development of more elaborate (electro-)chemical functionalisation methods, in particular with regard to achieving ultimate selectivity and biocompatibility [74]. Another stimulating impact may be on the elucidation of the exact mechanism by which SWCNT-FETs detect analytes in solution, specifically whether charge transfer or enhanced carrier scattering is the predominant effect of molecule adsorption [39, 75]. 

This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft within the fi amework of the priority program SPP1121. We are grateful to F. Nan, 

Scolari, and A. Mews from the University of Siegen (Germany) for their continuous supply with CVD-grown SWCNTs and their close collaboration on confocal microscopy of individual nanotubes. We thank H. Klauk and 

Zschieschang for the help with the fabrication of nanotube transistors incorporating a SAM-based dielectric. 

Richter (eds.). Introducing Molecular Electronics - Lecture Notes in Physics, Vol. 680 (Springer 

Although numerous applications of microemulsions have been described, there are still many avenues remaining to be explored. There is still a need for better excipients having acceptability for parenteral and ocular route. The excipients like caprylic acid mono-, 

Lipinski, C. (2002) Poor aqueous solubility - an industry wide problem in drug discovery. Am. 

Amidon, G.L., Lennernas, H., Shah, V.P. and Crison, J. (1995) A theoretical basis for a biophar-maceutic drug classification The correlation of in vitro drug product dissolution and in vivo bioavailability. Pharm. Res., 12, 413M20. 

Lawrence M. J. and Rees, G.D. (2000) Microemulsion-based media as novel drug delivery Systems. Adv. DrugDeliv. Rev., 45, 89-121. 

Gallarate, M., Carlotti, M.E., Trotta, M., Grande, A.E. and Talarico, C. (2004) Photostability of naturally occurring whitening agents in cosmetic microemulsions. /. Cosmet. Sci., 55, 139-148. 

1 Krishnan, M., Namasivayam, V., Lin, R., Pal, R., Burns, M. A., Microfabricated reaction and separation systems. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2001,12, 92-98. 

2 Terry, S. C., Jerman, J. H., Angell, J. B., A Gas chromatographic air analyzer fabricated on a silicon wafer. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 1979, ED-26,1880-1886. 

3 Manz, A., Miyahara, Y., Miura,)., Watanabe, Y, Miyagi, H., Sato, K., Design of an open-tubular column liquid chromatograph using silicon chip technology. Sens. Actuators, B 1990, B1 (1-6), 249-255. 

4 Manz, A., Graber, N., Widmer, H. M., Miniaturized total analysis systems  

A novel concept for chemical sensing. Sens. Actuators, B 1990,1, 244-248. 

Research from our laboratories presented in this review was generously supported by grants from the Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the American Chemical Society (ACS-PRF 27418-B1), and the National Institutes of Health (AI2796). The authors are grateful to Mr. D. Adams for technical assistance in preparing this manuscript. 

Sheppard and C. M. Sharts, Organic Fluorine Chemistry, p. 33. Benjamin, New York, 1969. 

in The Chemistry of Halides, Pseudo-Halides and Azides Supplement D (S. Patai and Z. Rappoport, eds.), Part 1, p. 616. Wiley, New York, 1983. 

Katritzky, Handbook of Heterocyclic Chemistry, p. 186. Pergamon, Oxford, 1985. 

Umemoto and K. Tomita, Tetrahedron Lett. 27, 3271 (1986). T. Umemoto, K. Kawada, and K. Tomita, Tetrahedron Lett. 27, 

Aluminium speciation in water samples has been shown to be virtually operationally deflned at the present time. Final improvements in analytical techniques or in the quality control of such speciation determinations demand an answer to the basic question of what aluminium species do we need to analyse. A possible way forward would be standardization of the analysis for the aluminium species toxic to Ash, e.g. Al(OH) , as an indication of water quality. However, there is no evidence that other inorganic species, e.g. A1(0H)2 , A102 or AlCP , which quickly convert to each other, do not produce similar toxicity problems [185]. It is also wondered whether the analytical methods to distinguish and measure reliably only a given species, e.g. Al(OH), in real samples (water, biological fluids and tissues, etc.) are available at present. While these questions are not properly answered, perhaps 

In order to pursue this latter objective effectively, at least two practical actions can be envisaged  

All of the problems outlined above indicate that the production of a synthetic reference water, with well defined total aluminium and Alim content, could prove most useful for aluminium toxicity control in natural waters before a certified natural water sample of well known and stable aluminiiun species content becomes available. 

Peralta-Yahya, P.P., Zhang, E, del Cardayre, S.B., and Keasling, J.D. (2012) Microbial engineering for the production of advanced biofuels. Nature, 488, 320-328. 

Gronenberg, L.S., Marcheschi, R.J., and Liao, J.C. (2013) Next generation biofuel engineering in prokaryotes. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol, 17, 462-471. 

and Petersen, G. (2004) Top Value Added Chemicals from Biomass Volume I - Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Sugars and Synthesis Gas, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. 

Ajikumar, P.K., Xiao, W.H., Tyo, K.E., Wang, Y., Simeon, E, Leonard, E., Mucha, O., Phon, T.H., Pfeifer, B., and Stephanopoulos, G. (2010) Isoprenoid pathway optimization for Taxol precursor overproduction in Escherichia coli. Science, 330, 70—74. 

Dekishima, Y., Baez, A., Cho, K.M., and Liao, J.C. (2011) Driving forces enable high-titer anaerobic 1-butanol synthesis in Escherichia coli. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 77, 2905-2915. 

Up until now, the SOMA method has been used only in apphcations such as genotyping or variant DNA detection, where PCR-based approaches are available and new high-throughput techniques are under development or being used. Except for applications that require the highest level of accuracy, SOMA will probably not be able to compete with these techniques for these apphcations. 

Preliminary data on using SOMA for determining allele frequency within a population is encouraging (Friesen et al, unpublished). DNA from 100-5(X) individuals is pooled and the relative frequency of polymorphic alleles can be determined from the size of the respective mass chromatogram peaks. These data provide valuable information for epidemiological studies on the effect of certain polymorphisms on disease risk. 

The highly accurate and quantitative aspects of SOMA are qualities suited for certain clinical diagnostic applications. Fix exanple, the quantity of a given mutant allele in a sample may determine the intervention or therapeutic strategy adopted for that individual. With continued improvements in instrumentation, data analysis capabilities and sample preparation methods, SOMA has great potential as a method for analysis of genetic variations in research and clinical settings. 

We would like to thank our S P RI colleagues Wim Dokter and Daniel Lundell for their critical review of this chapter. 

24 Rigamonti, E., Fontaine, C., Lefebvre, B., Duhem, C Lefebvre, P. et al. (2008) Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 28, 932-939. 

26 Inamura, H., Kurosawa, M Okano, A., Kayaba, H., and Majima, M, (2002) International Archives of Alleigy and Immunology, 128, 142-150, 

27 Ochensberger, B Tassera, L Bifrare, D., Rihs, S and Dahinden, C,A, (1999) European Journal of Immunology, 29, 11-22. 

29 Kanniess, F., Khalilieh, S., Ludwig-Sengpiel, A., Stryszak, P., Soni, P. et al. (2007) The European Respiratory Journal, 30 (Suppl 1), 209. 

Financial support for some of the work described herein and for the preparation of this chapter from a National Science Foundation CAREER award (MCB-1149538) is gratefully acknowledged. 

Hydrogen Exchange Mass Spectrometry as an Emerging Analytical Tool for Stabilization and Formulation Development of Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies  

Ranajoy Majumdar -, C. Russell Middaugh -, David D. Weis -, and David B. Volkin -  

Hydrogen Exchange Mass Spectrometry of Proteins Fundamentals, Methods, and Applications, First Edition. Edited by David D. Weis. 

Study of complex processes, as described above, would be an area of continued interest which would be stimulated by the need for understanding cardiac and biological control mechanism required for clinical detection and control and their applications as indicated earlier. 

Deeper understanding of similar phenomena in socio-political systems and fluctuations in Finance is also needed. 

Schuster, Deterministic Chaos, Second revised ed., VCN Verlagsgesellshaft GmbH, Weinsheim, FRG 1988, (a) p 9 (b) p 181. 

Chemical Chaos, Oxford Science Publications, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991. David Ruelle, Chance and Chaos, Princeton University Press, Penguin Books, 1993. 

Scott and P. Gray, Chemical Oscillations and Instabilities, Non-Linear Chemical Kinetics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990. 

Biodegradable polymer nanocomposites have emerged as a new class of materials and attracted considerable interest and investment in research and development worldwide [76-79]. This is largely due to their new and often much improved mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties as compared to their macro- and micro- coimterparts. In general, polymer nanocomposites are made by dispersing inorganic or organic nanoparticles into either a thermoplastic or thermoset polymer [80-85]. Nanoparticles can be three-dimensional spherical and polyhedral nanoparticles (e.g.. 

Due to new governmental policies over growing environmental awareness and social concerns, the search for novel eco-friendly products and processing has been triggered. Biodegradable polymers are considered as 

cuid V.V. Guzeev, Pmgress in Rubber and Plastics Technology, 17, 186,2001. 

Clay Mineralogy, New York McGraw-Hill 1953. 

Giannelis, R. Krishnamoorti, and E. Manias, Advancements in Polymer Science, 138,107,1999. 

Biostable PUs are considered the materials of choice for the manufacturing of cardiovascular devices that need high flexural endurance, fatigue resistance, and good blood compatibility. 

From 1995 to 2015, a deep understanding of the mechanisms involved in bioma-terial/tissue interaction gave new direction to scientists working in the biomaterials field. Indeed, to provide better functionality, to last longer, and to meet patient requirements, biomaterials should work in harmony with biology. 

A crucial feature required for a successful application of PUs as biomaterials is their ability to prevent microbial colonization. Indeed, any implanted biomaterial is known to have the potential to put the patient at high risk of infection. In case of intravascular devices, the development of device-related infections may result in life-threatening consequences for the patient. 

Dmg-releasing PUs can be considered the first milestone in the prevention of intravascular device-related infections. Already, their clinical application has contributed to decreasing infection risk, mortality rate, and patient morbidity. However, the use of these drag-releasing polymers has elicited concerns in terms of durability and possible local emergence of resistant microorganisms. 

In conclusion, the development of antimicrobial PUs is currently an area of active and ongoing research. The key for their success relies on the tight collaboration of scientists working in the field of macromolecular science, microbiology, and medicine. 

5 Futrell, J.H. (1986) Gaseous Ion Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York. 

Molecide Reactions, vol. 2 (ed. J.L. S Franklin), Plenum Press, New York P- 485. 

17 Farrar, J.M. (2006) Springer Handbook of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics (ed. G.W.F. S Drake), Springer, New York, p. 983. 

FIGURE 22.21 Gel permeation chromatograms of PLLA single crystals before and after partial enzymatic degradation by proteinase K at 37°C for 50 h. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 91. Copyright 1998, American Chemical Society. 

Currently, biodegradable plastics are considered to be eco-friendly because they can be broken down by the action of microorganisms in the environment. However, from the viewpoints of raw materials and energy sources, bio-based polymers have been produced from plant biomass. Unfortunately, at this point, bio-based polymers produced from edible sources such as com and sugar can generate new social problems. Furthermore, since bio-polyethylene has already been produced from bioethanol, some bio-based materials are not biodegradable plastics. 

We must recognize the difference between biodegradable plastics and bio-based plastics. Both are of course eco-friendly plastics in their own way. But, if scientists, 

Steinbiichel, Y. Doi (Eds.), Biopolymers, Vols 3a (Polyesters I) and 3b (Polyesters II), Wiley-VCH VerlagGmbH, Weinheim, 2002. 

The continuously growing family of gold-catalyzed reactions, which still is allowing the development of new reaction possibihties for the different types of intermediates, will add new elementary reactions and new modes of activation of the organic substrates to the toolbox of the synthetic chemist. In the years to come, we will see more exciting new results of this type. 

Cinellu, M.-A. (2012) in Modern Gold Catalzed Synthesis (eds A.S.K. Hashmi and ED. Toste), Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, p. 153-175. 

Pena-Lopez, M., Ayan-Varela, M., Sarandeses, L.A., and Perez Sestelo, 

This chapter is based in part on the results of HauCermann et al. [12], on Haufiermann s PhD thesis [13], and on unpublished density functional theory (DFT) calculations by Straub. 

In recent years, catalysts and protocols for the Z-selective formation of alkenes via alkene metathesis have been reported. Most progress has been made in the successful optimization of molecular molybdenum-alkylidene complexes. The substituents at their imido ligand fragment and at the electron-poor alcoholate/ 

Biologists usually claim that chemical data are precise and hence difficult to compare with morphological or, in general terms, biological data, assumed to be 

Furthermore, as demonstrated by Sporne s work (74, 75, 76), the quantification of morphological data is possible at least for families of angiosperms. It is hoped that statistical approaches will become available for all hierarchic ranks and all plant groups. Indeed, according to Niklas (61), in order to simulate plant evolution, one must develop mathematical (i.e., statistical) techniques for quanti- 

Indeed, as this book demonstrates, the tropical rain forest, which harbors most woody plants, is a memory bank from which we have retrieved so far only a proportionally minute and highly fragmentary part of the contained information. In the words of Myers [cited in ref. (84)], if present patterns of converting the tropical rain forest persist, it may be the worst biological debacle since life s first emergence on the planet 3.6 billion years ago. 

1 Anhut S, Zinsmeister H D, Mues R, Barz W, Mackenbrock K, Koster K, Markham K R 1984 The first identification of isoflavones from a bryophyte. Phytochemistry 23 1073-1075 

2 Bate-Smith E C 1972 Chemistry and phylogeny of the angiosperms. Nature 269 353-354 

Drinker P, Shaw LA. An apparatus fra- the prolonged administration of artificial respiration 1. Design for adults and children. J Clin Invest 1929 7 229-247. 

Hill NS. Chnical applications of body ventilators. Chest 1986 90 897-905. 

Bach JR, Alba AS, Saporito LR. Intermittent positive pressure ventilation via the mouth as an alternative to tracheostomy for 257 ventilattff users. Chest 1993 103 174-182. 

Curran FJ. Night ventilation by body respirators for patients in chronic respiratory failure due to late stage Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1981 62 270-274. 

Mehta S, Hill NS. Noninvasive ventilation-state of the art. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 163 540-577. 

Microbial cell factories [194] have recently been developed for the production of terpenoids such as sclareol [195], and, as was shown in the previous section, valencene and nootkatone. The genes responsible for the biosynthesis of the desired compound, such as prenyltransferases, terpene synthases, and additional transformation enzymes, are selected from a natural source and transferred into a host, usually S. cerevisiae or . coli, suitably engineered to overproduce IPP and DMAPP. High productivity values for a commercially exploitable production are achieved by further metabolic and bioprocess engineering improvements of the microbial system. 

At the beginning of 2014, Evolva and IFF announced entering the preproduction phase of natural vanillin by a new de novo process starting from glucose [199] in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, andS. cerevisiae. The engineered pathways involve the incorporation of 3-dehydroshikimate dehydratase from the dung mold Podospora pauciseta, an aromatic carboxylic acid reductase (ACAR) from 

Ziegler, H. (2007) in Flavourings Production, Composition, Applications, Regulations (ed. H. Ziegler), Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, Weinheim, pp. 1 — 13. 

Chiozza, L. (1856) Sur la production artificielle de I essence de cannelle. C.R. Hehd. Seances Acad. Sci., 1, 222. Tiemaim, F. and Haarmann, W. (1874) Ueber das coniferin und sein umwand-lug in das aromatische princip der vanille. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., 7, 

Reimer, K. and Tiemann, F. (1876) Ueber die einwirkung von chloroform auf alkalische phenolate. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., 9, 824-828. 

In the previous section some contemporary challenges in drug elution from polymeric matrices were explored, and recent works where PMMA and PUs have been used as a drug reservoir were detailed. However, there are a number of ways in which such composites could be prepared in order to improve the efficiency of the drug elution. 

We have previously discussed antibiotic-loaded cements produced by mixing the desired antibiotic with the PMMA cement. In this way, antibiotic elution and absorption are almost completely related to a surface phenomenon. Elution rates are dictated by several factors such as the porosity of the cement, surface area, wettability of the polymer, and the type and amount of antibiotic [1]. Increasing the porosity of the cement also increases drug elution [ 154]. A study by van de Belt et al. [83] showed that the initial release of gentamicin from an acrylic polymer matrix is partially a surface phenomenon, whereas the total amount released depends on bulk porosity. Therefore, a combination of surface roughness and porosity could improve the release kinetics of 

With the same idea of the previous works and taking into accoimt the advantages of electrospinning technique, a possible solution to problems concerning antibiotics elution from PMMA cement coatings could be the development of electrospun mats with a controllable porosity. The mat and fibers morphologies obtained from this technique can be tailored in order to fulfill the needed characteristics by choosing different processes and solution parameters [161]. 

Besides mixing the antibiotic with the polymer solution, another deposition method should be taken into account. Deposition by layer can be an effective way to control antibiotic elution due to the possibility to choose the location of the antibiotic layer and the amoxmt of drug by layer. In addition, the antibiotic agglomeration problems associated with continuum coatings could be resolved with the use of this deposition method. 

In our research group, several studies are being performed in order to control antibiotic elution by both methods. Different devices are being tested to homogeneously deposit an antibiotic solution over an electrospim PMMA mat. So far, incipient results demonstrate that the use of electrospim mats with sprayed drugs as implant coatings may be a promising approach to improve elution efficiency. 

After a period in which fabricating polymers directly obtained from biomass, hence not passing through a phase of chemical extraction of the monomer, be it a polysaccharide or a protein, have received limited attention, mainly due to variability of their properties, a change in trend is now clearly perceivable. The principal rationale 

The main routes that have been proposed so far for such an improvement, and which are iikeiy to be further deveioped in the next few years, are mainiy three. The first is the production of nanocomposites inciuding high-crystaiiinity fiiiers extracted from agrowaste, such as nanoceiiuiose (Kiemm et ai., 2011) and nanokeratin (Barone, 2009). 

A third way to increase the application profile of composites coming from an agrowaste-based matrix is the possible use of ground hulls, especially for their high lignin content, in these materials, either as filler or as a possible highly valuable resin. A few attempts have been performed so far, which include, e.g., the production on peanut-based particleboards (Ai iil and Tozluoglu, 2008) or the extraction of phenolic compounds from pistachio hulls (Rajaei et al., 2010). 

It is suggested in conclusion that the future developments will include resins extracted directly from agrowaste deriving from a variety of biological species alongside, if not in some cases in 

Akgiil, M., and Tozluoglu, A (2008). Utilizing peanut husk (Arachis hypogaea L.) in the manufacture of medium-density fiberboards. Bioresource TechnoL, 99(13), 5590-5594. doi 10.1016/j.biortech. 2007.10.041. 

Advancement in real-time monitoring and diagnosis in integrated SC planning to timely provide and update the SC state information needed by the different decision-making hierarchical levels will contribute to reduce the risk of unexpected events and improve the efficiency of SC planning. 

Improved manners to include the impact of scheduling decisions into SC design may be further explored. One interesting approach to be examined is the use of attainable regions (Sung and Maravelias 2007) for modeling feasible aggregated production rates. 

More research efforts are required to address decentralized SCs problems. As previously mentioned, duality, and separability principles may provide frameworks to achieve overall optimal solutions by interchanging among SC partners noncrit-ical information (i.e., dual values) instead of usually confidential data (e.g., costs, prices, technology parameters). Additionally, it would be interesting to explore the use of complementarity programs for decentralized SC modeling. 

One important task that should not be overlooked is the integration of data and analytical models. Indeed, despite the great advances in centralized transactional systems (e.g., ERP s), the huge amount of data stored in such systems is usually not utilized to feed analytical tools that can provide smarter solutions. Therefore, effort must be also devoted to the integration of information systems so as to provide decision support tools which take into account the available information 

Okahata, K. Ariga, H. Nakahara, and K. Fukuda, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 1986, f069. 

Tanaka, K. Katagiri, J. Kikuchi, H. Shimakoshi, E. Oshima, and Y. Hisaeda, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2001, 3, 3442. 

Decher, J. D. Hong, and J. Schmitt, Thin Solid Films, 1992, 210, 831. 

1 Markus, H., Plomp, A.J., Sandberg, T., Nieminen, V., Bitter, J.H. and Murzin, D.Y.Yu (2007) Dehydrogenation of hydroxymatairesinol to oxomatairesinol over carbon nanofibre-supported palladium catalysts. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A-Chemical, 274, 42. 

Okamoto, T. and Hamada, N. (2002) Selfregeneration of a Pd-perovskite catalyst for automotive emissions control. Nature, 418,164. 

Hughes, J.B. and Wong, M.S. (2005) Designing Pd-on-Au bimetallic nanoparticle catalysts for trichloroethene hydrodechlorination. Environmental Science and Technology, 39,1345. 

4 Favier, F., Walter, E.C., Zach, P.M., Benter, T. and Fenner, R.M. (2001) Hydrogen sensors and switches from electrodeposited palladium mesowire arrays. Science, 293, 2227. 

5 Ostwald, W. (1896) Lehrhruck der Allgemeinen Chemie, Vol. 2, Part 1, Leipzig, Germany. 

---

R. R. Shah, Clinical pharmacokinetics current requirements and future perspectives from a regulatory point of view, Xenobiotica, 1993, 23, 1159-1193. 

Mayer P, Hollt V (2005) Genetic disposition to addictive disorders - current knowledge and future perspectives. Curr Opin Pharmacol 5 4—8... 

Trumper, R. (2003). The physics laboratory A historical overview and future perspectives. Science... 

R. Mukhopadhyay, Future perspective of Indian automotive rubber component industry, Indian/International Rubber Journal, pp. 94—104, January-Febniary 2007. 

Hagendorens MM, Schuerwegh AJ, De Clerk LS, si Stevens WJ Flow-assisted allergy diagnosis current appheaUons and future perspectives. Allergy 2006 61 1028-1039. 

Pantelides, C. C., and Barton, P. I., Equation-oriented dynamic simulation. Current status and future perspectives. Comput. Chem. Eng. 17. S263 (1993). 

Langer, SZ (1997) 25 years since the discovery of pres5maptic receptors present knowledge and future perspectives. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 18 95-99. 

Senaratne, W., Andruzzi, L. and Ober, C. K. (2005) Self-assembled monolayers and polymer brushes in biotechnology Current applications and future perspectives. Biomacromolecules, 6, 2427-2448. 

Hudlicky, T. (1996) Design Constraints in Practical Syntheses of Complex Molecules Current Status, Case Studies With Carbohydrates and Alkaloids, and Future Perspectives. Chemical Reviews, 96, 3-30. 

SH Klang, M Parnas, S Benita. Emulsions as drug carriers - possibilities, limitations and future perspectives. In RH Muller, S. Benita, BHL Bohm, eds. Emulsions and Nanosuspensions for the Formulation of Poorly Soluble Drugs. Stuttgart Medpharm Scientific Publishers, 1998, pp 31-78. 

Davis F, Collyer SD, Higson SPJ (2005) The Construction and Operation of Anion Sensors Current Status and Future Perspectives. 255 97-124 Deamer DW, Dworkin JP (2005) Chemistry and Physics of Primitive Membranes. 259 1-27 Debaene F, see Winssinger N (2007) 278 311-342... 

Hancock, R.D. and Viola, R. (2001) The use of micro-organisms for L-ascorbic acid production current status and future perspectives. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 56 (5-6), 567-576. 

Recent results have been summarized in a number of articles, especially in this journal.17-19 This review will focus on newly developed HMBC pulse sequences and application on small to medium-sized organic molecules. After a short introduction into basic theory, a selection of pulse sequences and a look at the large variety of applications will complete the overview of the HMBC experiment. Finally, a brief summary and outlook to future perspectives of HMBC will be given. 

Conclusions and Future Perspectives for Free Energy Calculations... 

This chapter reviews the published analytical methods for the determination of selected emerging contaminants in sewage sludge samples, including sample preparation techniques as well as instrumental approaches. We survey the current state of the art and examine future perspectives. Finally, levels of selected compounds found in sewage sludge samples are reviewed. 

Jakobsen K (1999), Dietary modifications of animal fats status and future perspectives , Eur J Lipid Sci Technol, 101, 475-483. 

Piorr H P (1992), Phytopathological advantages and risks of organic farming systems Future perspectives to improve organic cropping systems , in Altman J, Pesticide-interactions in Crop Production Beneficial and deleterious effects, CRC Press, Cleveland, 461 172. 

---