Fossil-Based

l Production of Hydrogen by Superadiabatic Decomposition of Hydrogen Sulfide 

Francis S. Lou (Primary Contact), RachidB. Slimane, RemonJ. Dihu, and Mark Khinkis 

Jacques Bingue, Alexei Saveliev, Alexander Fridman, and Lawrence Kennedy 

Main Subcontractor University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 

Because of these limitations and other considerations, such as strict environmental regulations on sulfur emissions, any process for the recovery of hydrogen, in addition to sulfur, from H2S based on thermal decomposition or dissociation has 

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Natural gas, found in geological accumulations, normally refers to the gaseous fossil-based equivalent of oil. Its composition varies widely, from high concentrations of nitrogen and carbon dioxide to (almost) pure methane. In general, it contains low concentrations of the higher (saturated) hydrocarbons, which influence the physical properties and may present condensation problems in high-pressure transport lines. 

Small-scale (fossil-based) hydrogen production processes, 13 844 Small-signal value, 14 666 Small water-soluble molecules in hemodialysis, 26 820-821 Smaltite, 7 209t Smart emulsions, 10 131 Smart pills, 24 61-62... 

Among liquid fuels (XTL), only biomass-derived hydrocarbons (BTL) are a relevant option from the perspective of lowering GHG emissions not so other fossil-based liquids (CTL, GTL). Even if CTL fuel supply paths were upgraded by carbon capture and storage, the resulting specific CCF-equivalent emissions would only be reduced to the level of conventional gasoline or diesel energy chains. 

For the first decades, all roadmaps show a focus on fossil-based hydrogen production options, mainly onsite and decentral steam methane reformers (SMR), electro-lysers and hydrogen as a by-product from the chemical industry. In some regions, hydrogen is also produced to a certain extend by nuclear, electrolysis, biomass and waste gasification. Later on, with a significant increase of hydrogen, the production... 

Sources of cheaper hydrogen for the start-up phase are already available (e.g., as a chemical by-product, mostly fossil-based) and are very often used only thermally... 

In the short to medium term, renewable fossil based energy will remain important. C02 sequestration and the consequential importance of hydrogen imply a large interest in hydrogen production technologies, its storage and subsequent conversion. Electrocatalysis may be expected to be of increasing importance. 

Hydrogen is of interest as a means to deliver gaseous fuel from non-fossil primary energy resources such as nuclear reactors, or high temperature solar collectors. It is believed that hydrogen may phase into the energy market at such a time when fossil-based fuels either become too expensive or environmentally unsatisfactory. Hydrogen and biomass are the only two potentially visible options at the present time for the gas industry if that does take place. 

Despite the recent debates, few would disclaim that the net environmental benefits of hydropower are far superior to fossil-based generation. Hydroelectricity is produced for an average of 0.85 US0 per kWh. In comparison with hydropower, thermal plants take less time to design, obtain approval, build and recover investment. 

However, until effident production methods based on renewables can be established, fossil-based DME could bridge the gap. 

Biodegradable plastics have been used on an industrial scale since the end of the 1990s when BASF launched Ecoflex . This is a fossil-based, man-made polyester but yet is completely biodegradable due to its chemical structure. This structure is also the reason why Ecoflex combines excellent mechanical properties with the good processability of synthetic thermoplastics. Ecoflex is the preferred blend partner for bio-based and biodegradable polymers, which typically do not exhibit good mechanics and processability for film applications by themselves. Ecoflex therefore is a synthetic polymer that enables the extensive use of renewable raw materials (e.g., starch). 

Ecoflex F, the original Ecoflex grade, is a completely fossil-based ahphatic-aromatic copolyester produced by BASF (see Sect. 4). It is synthesized from 1,4-butanediol, adipic acid and terephthalic acid, and is a poly(butylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate) (PBAT). 

When looking at the life cycle of biodegradable plastics, two aspects are of particular importance the end-of-life options and the use of renewable resources in the material production (the major part of the currently available biodegradable plastic products are made of blends of fossil-based polymers and polymers derived from biomass). 

Crude Oil. Sulfur values may be produced from each of the fossil based synthetic fuels. However, forecasting sulfur output from these sources is subject to a number of intangibles. At best, the results are projective. With the exception of heavy crude oil, none of the processes or fuel sources are commercially developed in the U. S. Some have been run commercially elsewhere, usually under considerably different economic conditions and/or constraints. 

The production of aquatic biomass focusing initially only on energy production may represent a risky operation, taking into consideration today s large fluctuations in the price of fossil-based oil. As noted above, with fossil-oil prices currently below US 120 per barrel, algal biodiesel is barely competitive with diesel from fossil fuels. However, if the oil price were to exceed US 120 per barrel, then biodiesel from aquatic biomass may become economically viable [21, 22],... 

Complete with the keys to a quantification of process efficiency and sustainability, this cutting-edge resource is the ideal guide for those engaged in the transition from fossil-based fuels to renewable and sustainable energy sources using low-waste procedures. 

The book is meant for the practicing engineer and anybody else who is interested or engaged in the transition from a fossil-based, non-sustainable industry to a sustainable, low-waste industry based on renewable energy and resources. Thus, it is hoped, the book itself will contribute to the development of a sustainable society. 

Approximately 89 million metric t of organic chemicals and lubricants, the majority of which are fossil based, are produced annually in the United States. The development of new industrial bioproducts, for production in standalone facilities or biorefineries, has the potential to reduce our dependence on imported oil and improve energy security. Advances in biotechnology are enabling the optimization of feedstock composition and agronomic characteristics and the development of new and improved fermentation organisms for conversion of biomass to new end products or intermediates. This article reviews recent biotechnology efforts to develop new industrial bioproducts and improve renewable feedstocks and key market opportunities. 

Industrialbiobased products have enormous potential in the chemical and material industries. The diversity of biomass feedstocks (sugars, oils, protein, lignocellulosics), combined with the numerous biochemical and thermochemical conversion technologies, can provide a wealth of products that can be used in many applications. Targeted markets include the polymer, lubricant, solvent, adhesive, herbicide, and pharmaceutical markets. Industrial bioproducts have already penetrated some of these markets, but improved technologies promise new products that can compete with fossil-based products in both cost and performance. 

Together with purified terephthalic acid, 1,3-propanediol is used to produce polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), a polymer with remarkable "stretch-recovery" properties. The desirable attributes of PTT have been known since the 1940s, but high production costs prevented its entrance into the polymer market (29). In the 1990s, a new fossil-based route to 1,3-propanediol was developed enabling the production of PTT for higher-value applications, and PTT polymers were introduced into the market by DuPont and Shell Chemicals (29,30). 

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