From plants

M.p. 190-192 C. The enolic form of 3-oxo-L-gulofuranolactone. It can be prepared by synthesis from glucose, or extracted from plant sources such as rose hips, blackcurrants or citrus fruits. Easily oxidized. It is essential for the formation of collagen and intercellular material, bone and teeth, and for the healing of wounds. It is used in the treatment of scurvy. Man is one of the few mammals unable to manufacture ascorbic acid in his liver. Used as a photographic developing agent in alkaline solution. 

Trichloroethanoic acid, CCI3COOH. A crystalline solid which rapidly absorbs water vapour m.p. 58°C, b.p. 196-5" C. Manufactured by the action of chlorine on ethanoic acid at 160°C in the presence of red phosphorus, sulphur or iodine. It is decomposed into chloroform and carbon dioxide by boiling water. It is a much stronger acid than either the mono- or the dichloro-acids and has been used to extract alkaloids and ascorbic acid from plant and animal tissues. It is a precipitant for proteins and may be used to test for the presence of albumin in urine. The sodium salt is used as a selective weedkiller. 

Enzymes are obtained from plants, animals and micro-organisms by extraction with a suitable solvent, preferably after the cell structure has been destroyed by drying or grinding. They can be purified by precipitation and resolution and by fractional absorption and elution. Many enzymes have been obtained crystalline. 

Obtained as a syrup from plants of the Solanaceae family. Intensely poisonous, its action resembles that of atropine. Sedative in small doses. 

Compounds of class (iii) are either totally synthetic (a few steroids) or derivatives of natural products isolated from plants or microorganisms. They are discussed within the indicated sections. We will briefly describe published syntheses of the most common compounds... 

The isolation of alkaloids from plants is reviewed in the August 1991 issue of the Journal of Chemical Education pp 700-703... 

The actions of the naturally occurring materials now known as alkaloids were probably utilized by the early Egyptians and/or Sumarians (1). However, the beginnings of recorded, reproducible isolation from plants of substances with certain composition first took place in the early nineteenth century. Then in close succession, narcotine [128-62-1] (1, now called noscopine, C22H23NOy) (2) and morphine (2, R = H) (3) (both from the opium poppy, Papaver somnijerum E.) were obtained. 

Until separation techniques such as chromatography (28,29) and counter-current extraction had advanced sufficientiy to be of widespread use, the principal alkaloids were isolated from plant extracts and the minor constituents were either discarded or remained uninvestigated. With the advent of, first, column, then preparative thin layer, and now high pressure Hquid chromatography, even very low concentrations of materials of physiological significance can be obtained in commercial quantities. The alkaloid leurocristine (vincristine, 22, R = CHO), one of the more than 90 alkaloids found in Catharanthus roseus G. Don, from which it is isolated and then used in chemotherapy, occurs in concentrations of about 2 mg/100 kg of plant material. 

Tobacco Alkaloids. The relatively small number of alkaloids derived from nicotinic acid (27) (the tobacco alkaloids) are obtained from plants of significant commercial value and have been extensively studied. They are distinguished from the bases derived from ornithine (23) and, in particular, lysine (24), since the six-membered aromatic substituted pyridine nucleus common to these bases apparendy is not derived from (24). 

The first successhil attempt to make textile fibers from plant cellulose can be traced to George Audemars (1). In 1855 he dissolved the nitrated form of cellulose in ether and alcohol and discovered that fibers were formed as the dope was drawn into the air. These soft strong nitrocellulose fibers could be woven into fabrics but had a serious drawback they were explosive, nitrated cellulose being the basis of gun-cotton (see Cellulose esters, inorganic esters). 

Fibers for commercial and domestic use are broadly classified as natural or synthetic. The natural fibers are vegetable, animal, or mineral ia origin. Vegetable fibers, as the name implies, are derived from plants. The principal chemical component ia plants is cellulose, and therefore they are also referred to as ceUulosic fibers. The fibers are usually bound by a natural phenoHc polymer, lignin, which also is frequentiy present ia the cell wall of the fiber thus vegetable fibers are also often referred to as lignocellulosic fibers, except for cotton which does not contain lignin. 

Organic Materials. Museums contain large numbers of objects made out of components from plants or animals, including wood, eg, furniture, carvings fibers eg, textiles (qv), paper (qv) fmits, skin, eg, leather (qv), parchment bone ivory etc. Several of these materials have properties related to their preservation. 

M. E. Elorian, D. P. Kronkright, and R. E. Norton, The Conservation of Artifacts Made from Plant Materials, The Getty Conservation Institute, Marina del Ray, Calif., 1990. 

Essentia.1 Oils. Essential oils (qv) are extracted from the flower, leaf, bark, fmit peel, or root of a plant to produce flavors such as mint, lemon, orange, clove, cinnamon, and ginger. These volatile oils are removed from plants either via steam distillation, or using the cold press method, which avoids heat degradation. Additional processing is sometimes employed to remove the unwanted elements from the oils, such as the terpenes in citms oils which are vulnerable to oxidation (49,50). 

The principal steps in the mechanism of polyisoprene formation in plants are known and should help to improve the natural production of hydrocarbons. Mevalonic acid, a key intermediate derived from plant carbohydrate via acetylcoen2yme A, is transformed into isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) via phosphorylation, dehydration, and decarboxylation (see Alkaloids). IPP then rearranges to dimethylaHyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). DMAPP and... 

Lactic Acid B cteri. The lactic acid bacteria are ubiquitous in nature from plant surfaces to gastrointestinal tracts of many animals. These gram-positive facultative anaerobes convert carbohydrates (qv) to lactic acid and are used extensively in the food industry, for example, for the production of yogurt, cheese, sour dough bread, etc. The sour aromatic flavor imparted upon fermentation appears to be a desirable food trait. In addition, certain species produce a variety of antibiotics. 

Psyllium Seed Gum. PsyUium seed gum [8036-16-9] is derived from plants of the genus Plantago several species of which are used as commercial sources. However, most current production is from Plantago ovata grown in India. The gum is located in the coat which is removed by cracking. The gum is then extracted with boiling water and separated from the insoluble residue by filtration. It consists of mixtures of both neutral and acidic polysaccharides, the composition of which is species dependent (66). 

P-Endorphin. A peptide corresponding to the 31 C-terminal amino acids of P-LPH was first discovered in camel pituitary tissue (10). This substance is P-endorphin, which exerts a potent analgesic effect by binding to cell surface receptors in the central nervous system. The sequence of P-endorphin is well conserved across species for the first 25 N-terminal amino acids. Opiates derived from plant sources, eg, heroin, morphine, opium, etc, exert their actions by interacting with the P-endorphin receptor. On a molar basis, this peptide has approximately five times the potency of morphine. Both P-endorphin and ACTH ate cosecreted from the pituitary gland. Whereas the physiologic importance of P-endorphin release into the systemic circulation is not certain, this molecule clearly has been shown to be an important neurotransmitter within the central nervous system. Endorphin has been invaluable as a research tool, but has not been clinically useful due to the avadabihty of plant-derived opiates. 

Uses. The principal uses of NaBH are ia synthesis of pharmaceuticals (qv) and fine organic chemicals removal of trace impurities from bulk organic chemicals wood-pulp bleaching, clay leaching, and vat-dye reductions and removal and recovery of trace metals from plant effluents. 

Air cleaning systems are often used to remove dust or vapors from plant or process exhaust streams. Dust collecting systems such as filters or electrostatic precipitators that handle heavy loads of dust are usually designed to be self-cleaning, but it is stiU. necessary to enter the air cleaner periodically for inspection or repair. Dust deposits inside the equipment are likely to be stirred up and inhaled by unprotected workers. Baghouses are particularly likely to cause exposure because large amounts of dust may be retained in the cloth and released when the bags are handled. 

Acetophenone. Acetophenone [98-86-2] (methyl phenyl ketone) is a colorless Hquid that forms laminar crystals at low temperature (mp 20°C). It has a characteristic sweet orange blossom odor, and is soluble in alcohols and ethers. It is found in nature in oil of casatoreum, obtained from beavers oil of labdanum, recovered from plants and in buds of balsam poplar. It can be prepared by the Friedel-Crafts reaction (qv) of acetyl chloride with benzene in the presence of aluminum chloride however, this route is of Htde commercial significance. 

The US. Pharmacopeia (USP XXII) or National Formula (NFXVII) (20) also provide a similar description however, the peroxide value is not defined (Table 9). These specifications are also given in the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (HPE), pubhshed jointiy by the American Pharmaceutical Association and The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (21), which defines lecithins both from plants and eggs. The Merck Index (22) specifies a slightiy lower acid value. The Japanese Monograph (ISCI-II) (23) specifies a slightiy lower acetone-insoluble matter and a lower heavy-metal content. 

For some appUcations, microbial polysaccharides have supplemented or replaced those derived from plants or algae in other instances, microbial polysaccharides have been developed for specific appUcations that cannot be met by other polysaccharides. Further information is available (5—24). 

Aldolases cataly2e the asymmetric condensation of intermediates common in sugar metaboHsm, such as phosphoenolpymvic acid, with suitable aldehyde acceptors. Numerous aldolases derived from plants or animals (Class I aldolases) or from bacteria (Class II) have been examined for appHcations (81). Efforts to extend the appHcations of these en2ymes to the synthesis of unusual sugars have been described (2,81). 

Oleoresin. Natural oleoresins are exudates from plants, whereas prepared oleoresins are solvent extracts of botanicals, which contain oil (both volatile and, sometimes, fixed), and the resinous matter of the plant. Natural oleoresins are usually clear, viscous, and light-colored Hquids, whereas prepared oleoresins are heterogeneous masses of dark color. 

Exceptions to the simple definition of an essential oil are, for example, gadic oil, onion oil, mustard oil, or sweet birch oils, each of which requires enzymatic release of the volatile components before steam distillation. In addition, the physical process of expression, appHed mostly to citms fmits such as orange, lemon, and lime, yields oils that contain from 2—15% nonvolatile material. Some flowers or resinoids obtained by solvent extraction often contain only a small portion of volatile oil, but nevertheless are called essential oils. Several oils are dry-distiUed and also contain a limited amount of volatiles nonetheless they also are labeled essential oils, eg, labdanum oil and balsam oil Pern. The yield of essential oils from plants varies widely. Eor example, nutmegs yield 10—12 wt % of oil, whereas onions yield less than 0.1% after enzymatic development. 

Paint is one of the most common and widely used materials in home and building constmction and decoration (see Building materials). Its broad use comes from its abiHty to provide not only improved appearance and decoration but also protection of a substrate to which it is appHed. Evidence of the historical uses of paint goes back over 25,000 years to cave paintings found in Europe. The Bible describes pitch being used to coat and protect Noah s Ark. Over 10,000 years ago in the Middle East, various minerals and metals such as lime, siHca, copper and iron oxides, and chalk were mixed and reacted to produce many colors. Resins from plant sap and casein were also used. Over 2000 years ago in Asia, resins refined from insect secretions and sap from trees were used to make clear lacquers and varnishes (2). 

---