Summary and future perspective

1 van Zanden, J.J., van der Woude, H., Vaessen, J., Usta, M., Wortelboer, H.M., Cnubben, N.H. and Rietjens, I.M. (2007) The effect of quercetin phase II metabolism on its MRP1 and MRP2 inhibiting potential. Biochemical Pharmacology, 74, 345—351. 

Pumplin, D.W., Fang, H.B. and Ross, D.D. (2003) Functional characterization of human breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP, ABCG2) expressed in the oocytes of Xenopus laevis. Molecular Pharmacology, 64, 1452-1462. 

3 Gopal, E., Miyauchi, S., Martin, P.M., Ananth, S., Roon, P., Smith, S.B. and Ganapathy, V. (2007) Transport of nicotinate and structurally related 

and Keppler, D. (2001) Vectorial transport by double-transfected cells expressing the human uptake transporter SLC21A8 and the apical export pump ABCC2. Molecular Pharmacology, 60, 934-943. 

Smitherman, P.K. and Townsend, A.J. (2006) Multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1, ABCC1) mediates resistance to mitoxantrone via glutathione-dependent drug efflux. Molecular Pharmacology, 69, 1499-1505. 

The topic of nano-fillers and nano-composites is in vogue at present. This is predominately due to the surprisingly good properties that are attainable at low loading levels of nanoplates, and the ability to produce such plates from certain clays. 

Much progress still needs to be made on the theoretical understanding of these materials. This is particularly important with the plate like particles derived from natural sources, which are currently of most commercial interest. These are complicated by the competing contributions from the shape, surface area, delamination and alignment, polymer degradation and surface chemistry issues. 

This area is still largely at the research stage and even so the materials produced are rather close to being commercially attractive on a wide-scale. With some further work it is certain that improvements in performance will be seen and that the cost will decline once large volumes are sold. At some point it is expected that the performancercost ratio will become attractive compared to the traditionally filled composites and a breakthrough will occur, leading to wide-scale commercialisation of nano-filler composites. 

Thaxton, C.S., Georganopoulou, D.G. and Mirkin, G.A. (2006) Gold nanopartide probes for the detection of nucleic add targets. Clinica Chimica Acta, 363, 120-6. 

Terracdano, R., Thundat, T. and Ferrari, M. (2006) Nanotechnologies for biomolecular detection and medical diagnostics. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 10,11-19. 

and Simons, J.W. (2007) Nanotechnology applications in cancer. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering, 9, 257-88. 

and Chen, X. (2007) Nanoplatforms for targeted molecular imaging in living subjects. Small, 11, 1840-54. 

Nanoarchitectures by Sol-Gel from Silica and Silicate Building Blocks 

Pilar Aranda, Carolina Belver, and Eduardo Ruiz-Hitzky 

Heterostructured materials based on the assembly of inorganic solids of different nature are an attractive type of nanoscale architecture in which the properties of both components may be coupled in the resulting material. Moreover, the existence of interactions at the interface may result in novel properties and synergistic effects. Among the different synthetic strategies for the development of new functional heterostructured materials, the sol-gel process offers interesting possibilities that enable the development of novel nanoarchitectures mainly based on the in situ formation of diverse 

The Sol-Gel Handbook Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications, First Edition. 

One of the most typical clay-based nanoarchitectures is the so-called pillared clays (PILCs). They are built by incorporation of diverse species in the interlayer region of layered silicates, such as smectites, which provoke a permanent separation of the structural layers as do pillars in the building constructions. PILCs are mainly prepared in two-step processes in which polyoxocations of diverse type of metal (e.g., Al(III), Cr(III), Fe(III), and Ga(III)) are first intercalated by ion exchange reactions and further transformed into oxide particles by an adequate thermal treatment [8]. In certain cases, for instance, in the preparation of silica. 

Agarwal 0. P. edition 26 (2009). Isolation of casein and lactose from milk. Adv. Pract. Org. Chem., 371-372. 

Albertsson, A. C., and Varma, I. K. (2002). Aliphatic polyesters Synthesis, properties and applications. AdvPo/ m., 157,1-40. 

Av rous, L., and Pollet, E., eds. (2012). Environmental Silicate Nano-Biocomposites, Green Energy and Technology, DPI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4108-2 2. Springer-Verlag London, pp. 1-14. 

Barreto, P. L. M., Pires, A. T. N., and Soldi, V. (2003). Thermal Degradation of Edible Films Based on Milk Proteins and Gelatin in Inert Atmosphere. Poivm. Dearad. Stab.. 79,147-152. 

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In this chapter we have discussed the preparation, physical properties, and bioapplications of nanocrystals from two of the most abundant natural 

There is a significant amount of research on the applications of materials derived from renewable materials with enhanced performance and biocompatibility in regenerative medicine. It is expected that other novel applications of CNCs, cationic CNCs, and CHNCs will be discovered in the biomedical field in the near future. The application of non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible materials for various applications is of great importance from an environmental point of view. The presence of several functional groups on the surface of these nanoctystals allows for their 

Michiardi, M. Navarro, D. Lacroix and J. Planell, Trends Biotechnol, 2008, 26, 39. 

Zia and M. Barikani, Chitin and Chitosan Based Blends, Composites and Nanocomposites, in Advances in Natural Polymers, ed. S. Thomas, P. M. Visakh and A. P. Mathew, Springer, Berlin, 2013, vol. 18, pp. 55-65. 

Elazzouzi-Hafraoui, Y. Nishiyama, J.-L. Putaux, L. Heux, F. Dubreuil and C. Rochas, Biomacromolecules, 2008, 9, 57. 

Lastly, multifunctional scaffolds are also attractive platforms for treating bone diseases. As discussed before, 2-D and 3-D scaffolds can serve both as a cell/tis-sue support and a drug carrier. Recent research has attempted to extend the scope of scaffold functions and fabricate smart scaffolds that can simultaneously incorporate disease sensing, diagnosis, imaging, and treatment. To realize this, numerous nanomaterials can be used to fulfill these functions and immobilized into/onto scaffolds. For 

Goldberg M, Langer R, Jia X. Nanostructured materials for applications in drng delivery and tissue engineering. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 2007 18 241-68. 

Anderson DG, Burdick JA, Langer R. Smart biomaterials. Science 2004 305 1923-4. LaVan DA, McGuire T, Langer R. Small-scale systems for in vivo drng delivery. Nat Biotechnol 2003 21 1184-91. 

Bone diseases, Medline Plus. A service of the US National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health. Available at http //www.nlm.nih.gov/medhneplus/bone- 

National Osteoporosis Foundation. Available at http //www.noforg/osteoporosis/ diseasefacts.htm and http //www.nof.org/patientinfo/medications.htm [last accessed 16.04.09]. 

Work in the author s laboratory was supported by grants from the United Nations Development Program/World Bank/World Health Organization Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, the National Institutes of Health (USA), and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. 

Parodi, A. J., and Leloir, L. F. (1979). The role of lipid intermediates in the glyco-sylation of proteins in the eukaryotic cell. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 559, 1-37. 

Hubbard, S. C., and Ivatt, R. J. (1981). Synthesis and processing of asparagine-linked oligosaccharides. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 50, 555-583. 

Yagodnik, C., de la Canal, C., and Parodi, A. J. (1987). Tetrahymena pyriformis cells are deficient in all mannose-P-dolichol-dependent mannosyltransferases but not in mannose-P-dolichol synthesis. Biochemistry 26, 5937-5943. 

In this review, recent progress in the synthesis of core-shell-stractured NPs for catalytic applications has been presented. Since the first realization of the nanoreactor concept, various versions of core-shell-structured nanocatalysts have emerged within a very short period of time, driven by advances in nanochemistry. Core-shell and yolk-shell nanocatalysts have shown enhanced thermal and chemical stability, thus preventing aggregation and sintering of small metal NPs. In core-shell (yolk-shell) structures where the shell layer was composed of metal oxides that show metal-support interaction, enhanced catalytic activity was observed. Furthermore, recent examples demonstrated that reactant size selectivity could be achieved by making shell layers with a crystalline, microporous MOF material. 

Although the field of core-shell nanocatalyst has progressed rapidly, it is still in its infancy. Thus, continued efforts are required for further development of possible 

16 Products yield on the Pd/AliOs samples with and without ALD-assisted AI2O3 overcoating during oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane reaction as a function of reaction time under identical reaction conditions. Diamonds with a dashed line are product yields on the uncoated PCI/AI2O3 sample circ/ei with solid fines are product yields on the 45A1/Pd/Al203 sample. Adapted from ref. [71] 

On a final note, we point out that nanoscience has remarkably advanced the preparation of heterogeneous catalysts to the stage of their rational design beyond the traditional trial-and-error methods. In this review, some aspects of such rational approaches to creating stable nanocatalysts are highlighted. In the near future, the extension of such design concepts will lead to the control of activity and selectivity in catalytic reactions, which appears quite challenging. 

Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea, funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (NRF-2010-0005341). S.H.J. is a TJ Park Junior Faculty FeUow. 

In this article, recent developments, up to late 1986, on carbon dioxide reduction have been reviewed. These can be summarized as follows  

Reduction of carbon dioxide takes place at various metal electrodes. The main products are formic acid in aqueous solutions and oxalate, CO, and formic acid in nonaqueous solutions. An indium electrode is the most potential saving for C02 reduction. Due to the difference in optimum conditions between those for C02 reduction to formic acid and those for formic acid reduction to further reduced products, direct reduction of C02 in aqueous solutions without a catalyst to highly reduced products seems to be difficult at metal electrodes. However, catalytic effects of metal electrodes themselves have recently become more clear for example, on Cu, methane was detected, while on Ag and Au, CO was produced effectively in aqueous solutions. Furthermore, at a Mo electrode, methanol was obtained. The power efficiency is, however, still low at any electrode. 

The reaction mechanism of C02 reduction is still a subject of discussion, although, in general, the mechanisms proposed by Eyring and co-workers45 and Amatore and Saveant53 have proved acceptable for aqueous and nonaqueous solutions, respectively. In situ spectroscopic measurement techniques, by which intermediates and their adsorption behavior can be estimated, will become more and more important in better understanding each elementary step of the reaction pathway. 

If multielectron transfer takes place, the potentials required thermodynamically for C02 reduction are much less negative than 

The photoelectrochemical reduction of C02 at illuminated p-type semiconductor electrodes is also effective for C02 reduction to highly reduced products. The combination of photocathodes with catalysts for C02 reduction leads to a marked decrease in the apparent overpotential. At present, however, light to chemical energy conversion efficiencies are still very low, and negative in some cases. 

Copyright 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs 3-527-29989-0 (Hardcover) 3-527-60006-X (Electronic) 

As microarray gene expression data are increasingly generated, the role of trans- 

We have summarized a small number of efforts in using systems biology approaches for understanding the regulation of transporters and drug-transporter relationships derived from correlations with transporter expression in different cells. 

1 Anderle, P., Huang, Y., and Sadee, W. (2004) Intestinal membrane transport of drugs and nutrients genomics of membrane transporters using expression microarrays. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 21, 17-24. 

4 Zhang. E.Y., Knipp, G.T., Ekins, S., and Swaan. P.W. (2002) Structural biology and function of solute transporters implications for identifying and designing substrates. Drug Metabolism Reviews, 34. 709-750. 

5 Chang, C. and Swaan, P.W, (2005) Computational approaches to modeling drug transporters. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 27, 411—424. 

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Summary and Future Perspective of Biomimetic Self-Healing Composites... 

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