Fuel producing

Table 17. Properties and Analysis of Liquid Fuel and No. 6 Fuel Oil Liquid fuel produced by flash pyrolysis using char recycle (Fig. 10).

Fuel produced in Tacoma, Wash. Values on ovendry (OD) fuel basis. Ref. 12. 

Synthetic fuels derived from shale or coal will have to supplement domestic suppHes from petroleum someday, and aircraft gas turbine fuels producible from these sources have been assessed. Shale-derived fuels can meet current specifications if steps are taken to reduce the nitrogen levels. However, extracting kerogen from shale rock and denitrogenating the jet fuel are energy-intensive steps compared with petroleum refining it has been estimated that shale jet fuel could be produced at about 70% thermal efficiency compared with 95% efficiency for petroleum (25). Such a difference represents much higher cost for a shale product. 

Biodiesel is diesel fuel produced from vegetable oils and other renewable resources. Many different types of oils can he used, including animal fats, used cooking oils, and soybean oil. Biodiesel is miscible with petroleum diesels and can he used in biodiesel-diesel blends. Most often blends are 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent traditional diesel. Soy diesel can be used neat (100%), hut many other types of biodiesel are too viscous, especially in winter, and must be used in blends to remain fluid. The properties of the fuel will vaiy depending on the raw material used. Typical values for biodiesel are shown in Table 1. 

But problems persisted. The catalyst, moving at rapid rates, tended to disintegrate as it impacted the inside surface of equipment. Dust particles formed, clogging pipes and transfer lines and disrupting the smooth flow of operation. This difficulty in turn prevented uniform heat distribution through the system and affected the rate and extent of both cracking and regeneration. Both the volume and C uality of fuel produced suffered. 

The cleanliness of products of combustion from gas enable recovery of latent heat by means of condensing appliances in which the products are cooled below the dewpoint of 55°C. The condensate is only weakly acidic and a suitable choice of materials of manufacture permit it to be dealt with. Most other fuels produce a condensate which is too acidic to allow condensing appliances to be used. 

In principle biomass is a useful fuel for fuel cells many of the technologies discussed above for using biomass as a fuel produce either methane or hydrogen directly and as highlighted below synthesis gas production from biomass for conversion to methanol is an attractive option. Cellulose-based material may be converted to a mixture of hydrogen (70% hydrogen content recovered), CO2 and methane by high-temperature treatment with a nickel catalyst. 

Biodiesel may be represented chemically as a mixture of fatty acid methyl esters. It is a naturally derived liquid fuel, produced from renewable somces which, in compliance with appropriate prescriptions, may be used in place of diesel fuel for both internal combustion engines and for producing heat in boilers. The advantages, especially environmental, which can potentially result from the widespread use of biodiesel, are manifold ... 

Diesel engines are often used in large trucks and heavy equipment because the diesel fuel produces more heat per liter than does gasoline. What does this imply about the nature of the molecules of diesel fuel, as compared to the molecules that make up gasoline ... 

Waste-derived fuels from refining processes Fuels produced by refining oil-bearing hazardous wastes with normal process streams at petroleum refining facilities are exempt if such wastes resulted from normal petroleum refining, production, and transportation practices. For these wastes to be considered as refined, they must be inserted into a part of the process designed to remove contaminants. This would typically mean insertion prior to distillation. 

Unrefined waste-derived fuels and oils Fuels produced at a petroleum refinery from oilbearing hazardous wastes that are introduced into the refining process after the distillation step or that are reintroduced in a process that does not include distillation are exempt if the resulting fuel meets the specifications under the federal recycled used oil standards. Oil that is recovered from hazardous waste at a petroleum refinery and burned as a fuel is also exempt provided it meets the used oil specifications. 

The aqueous component from the fossil fuel component is seperated. The fossil fuel produced is significantly reduced in sulfur and salts. The aqueous effluent component is enriched in inorganic salts and inorganic sulfur molecules. 

The DS7 strain is characterized for its activity on the representative sulfur groups of the molecules present in fuel producing cuts, both gasoline and diesel. Examples given include straight-run gas oils, gas oils from hydrodesulfurization and the main streams coming from the atmospheric distillation of petroleum (cuts 70-160°C, 160-230°C and 230-350°C.),... 

A demetallized fossil fuel produced by a method of removing metals from a fossil fuel using an oxygenase which degrades porphyrin molecules, under suitable conditions. 

Also, by the very nature of chemical transformations, there are almost always unused chemicals remaining. These chemical leftovers include contaminants in the raw materials, incompletely converted raw materials, unavoidable coproducts, unselective reaction by-products, spent catalysts, and solvents. There have long been efforts to minimize the production of such waste products, and to recover and reuse those that cannot be eliminated. For those that cannot be reused, some different use has been sought, and as a last resort, efforts have been made to safely dispose of whatever remains. The same efforts apply to any leftovers from the production of the energy from the fuels produced or consumed by the processing industries. Of particular immediate and increasing concern are the potential detrimental effects of carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion, as discussed further in Chapters 9 and 10. 

The transportation fuels produced and marketed (Table 18.9)40 met the South African fuel specifications of that time and included some coal-derived liquids (not shown in Figure 18.5). Although the refinery originally produced no jet fuel, it was demonstrated that the hydrogenated kerosene range oligomers from olefin oligomerization over a solid phosphoric acid catalyst met the requirements for jet fuel.38 (Semisynthetic jet fuel was approved in 1999 and fully synthetic jet fuel was approved in 2008 DEFSTAN 91-91/Issue 6). 

When comparing the refined motor gasoline and diesel fuel produced in the Hydrocol Fe-HTFT refinery (Tables 18.6 and 18.7) with those obtained from the original Sasol 2 and 3 Fe-HTFT refinery (Table 18.9), there is surprisingly little difference in quality. The crude oil refining approach followed for Sasol 2 and 3 resulted in a more complex and costly refinery design to achieve essentially the same product quality as the Hydrocol refinery. 

Recently Cleaner Production Center organized an Environmental Symposium on Transportation and Environment. In recent years, the number of cars in Dnepropetrovsk increased dramatically, predominantly owing to import of used cars, and exceeded 250,000 in 2000. Since the city has no by-pass highways, tens of thousands of cars pass its center daily. They run on cheap fuels containing massive admixtures of aromatic compounds like benzene, toluene and xylene. The fuels produced by coke-and-byproduct plants in Zaporozhe and Dneprodzerzhinsk contain 16... 

Catalysis plays a prominent role in our society. The majority of all chemicals and fuels produced in the chemical industry have been in contact with one or more catalysts. Catalysis has become indispensable in environmental pollution control selective catalytic routes are replacing stoichiometric processes that generate waste problems. The three-way catalyst effectively reduces pollution from car engines. Catalytic processes to clean industrial exhaust gases have been developed and installed. In short, catalysis is vitally important for our economy now, and it will be even more important in the future. 

Although it may be difficult, more cooperation is required between vehicle manufacturers, fuel producers, and the government. The infrastructure for the production and delivery of the fuels can evolve as needed with free market forces providing most of the momentum. But, there will need to be a coordination of selections of fuels and the adjustments needed to run those fuels. 

Emissions from catalytic reforming (Figure 4.14) include fugitive emissions of volatile constituents in the feed and emissions from process heaters and boilers. As with all process heaters in the refinery, combustion of fossil fuels produces emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and volatile hydrocarbons. 

---