Productivity increase

Demand for non-fuel petroleum products increases from year to year. For example, in France, their share of the total petroleum market rose from 9% to 15.7% between 1973 and 1992. 

Regardless of the alkyl halide raising the temperature increases both the rate of substitution and the rate of elimination The rate of elimination however usually increases faster than substitution so that at higher temperatures the proportion of ehm mation products increases at the expense of substitution products... 

World rice production has been increasing at approximately 7 million t/yr since 1950. Land use for rice production increased from 103 million ha in 1950 to 146 million in 1978. Since 1978 the acreage has remained fairly constant. The increase in production since 1978 has been the result of higher yields per ha (increasing from 2.58 in 1978 to 3.16 million t/ha in 1988). 

The quantities of formaldehyde and base catalyst required to produce pentaerythritol from 1 mol of acetaldehyde are always in excess of the theoretical amounts of 4 mol and 1 mol, respectively, and mole ratios of formaldehyde to acetaldehyde vary widely. As the mole ratio increases, formation of dipen taerytbritol and pentaerythritol linear formal is suppressed. Dipentaerythritol formation may also be reduced by increasing the formaldehyde concentration, although linear formal production increases under those conditions (55,56). 

Secondary smoke is produced mosdy by the condensation of water in humid or cold air. The presence of hydrogen chloride or hydrogen fluoride in the combustion products increases the extent and rate of condensation. Composition modifications to reduce primary smoke may reduce secondary smoke to some extent, but complete elimination is unlikely. The relatively small amount of smoke produced in gun firings by modem nitrocellulose propellants, although undesirable, is acceptable (102—109). 

It has been found that the flavor of fmit can be increased by a process called precursor atmosphere (PA) (77). When apples were stored in a controlled atmosphere containing butyl alcohol [71-36-3] the butyl alcohol levels increase by a factor of two, and the polar products, butyl ester, and some sesquiterpene products increase significantly. The process offers the possibiUty of compensating for loss of flavor in fmit handling and processing due to improper transportation conditions or excessive heat. 

The clinical use of plasma products varies widely between countries (Table 8) with commercial products being imported in some instances to meet demand. In the United States, the market for plasma products increased from 250,000,000 in 1980 to over 850,000,000 in 1991. This expansion resulted from a 60% increase in the use of albumin, a 70% increase in the use of Eactor X concentrate, and the introduction of intravenous immunoglobulin (IgG iv). The 1987 quantity of IgG iv was 10.7 kg per million population by 1991 this usage had increased approximately 220%. The introduction of highly... 

Indium prices vary by purity level according to the number of mines. For 99.97 or 99.99% pure indium Meta/Bu//etm magazine s free-market prices ranged from 160 to 190/kg in 1993. Prices have trended downward since 1988. This, coupled with the fact that consumption increased during this period, is evidence that supply is ahead of demand. The most notable production increases have occurred at Indium Corp. of America, Nippon Mining Co. Ltd., Cominco Ltd., and Metaleurop S.A. The largest increase was made by Indium Corp. A 30-t increase was announced in 1988 in 1993 Indium Corp. announced plans to increase production by another 30 t to be phased in with demand, bringing the company s actual and planned increases to 60 metric tons over the 1988 level. 

The world economic (proven) nickel reserves are estimated at 47.0 x 10 t. At the 1992 world rate of mine production, these reserves would be expected to last at least until the year 2050. If, however, annual mine production increases at a rate that reflects a predicted increase in the world primary nickel consumption of 2% annually, these reserves would be depleted before 2030 (6,8,9). 

Phosphoms compounds are manufactured for a variety of uses, either direcdy or as intermediates in the production of other compounds. Manufacturing of the largest-volume products is summari2ed in Table 15, and prices are given in Table 16. Phosphoms trichloride and phosphoms pentasulfide are the compounds in highest demand. Phosphoms trichloride production increased steadily from 1985 through the mid-1990s. Up to 36% of PCl is used for pesticide products. 

U.S. production of titanium dioxide in 1993 was 1.16 x 10 t, an increase of about 2.2% over 1992 (15). The annual production increased on an average of 5.4% in the 1980s (16). There are approximately 50 world producers of titanium dioxide pigments. The world s leading suppHers are Du Pont (- 24% worldwide share), Tioxide (the U.K. Co. owned by ICI), and SCM Corp. Other producers include Kerr McGee, Tiwest, Kemira Oy, Kronos, and Bayer AG (see Titanium compounds, inorganic). 

Particle Segregation Mechanisms. Segregation is the process by which an assembly of soHd particles separates as it is being handled. This often results in cosdy quaUty control problems due to the waste of raw or finished materials, lost production, increased maintenance, and capital costs required to retrofit existing faciUties. 

Catalyst Development. Traditional slurry polypropylene homopolymer processes suffered from formation of excessive amounts of low grade amorphous polymer and catalyst residues. Introduction of catalysts with up to 30-fold higher activity together with better temperature control have almost eliminated these problems (7). Although low reactor volume and available heat-transfer surfaces ultimately limit further productivity increases, these limitations are less restrictive with the introduction of more finely suspended metallocene catalysts and the emergence of industrial gas-phase fluid-bed polymerization processes. 

Copper. Domestic mine production of copper metal in 1994 was over 1,800,000 t. Whereas U.S. copper production increased in the 1980s and 1990s, world supply declined in 1994. There are eight primary and five secondary smelters, nine electrolytic and six fire refiners, and fifteen solvent extraction—electro winning (SX—EW) plants. Almost 540,000 t/yr of old scrap copper and alloy are recycled in the United States accounting for - 24% of total U.S. consumption (11). New scrap accounted for 825,000 t of contained copper. Almost 80% of the new scrap was consumed by brass mills. The ratio of new-to-old scrap is about 60 40% representing 38% of U.S. supply. 

These discoveries were followed by two key publications describing the work that marked the beginning of the commercial siUcone industry (18,19). Production increased rapidly with the need for siUcones in World War II. In 1943, the Dow Corning Corp. was formed in Midland, Michigan, as a joint venture between Corning Glass and Dow Chemical. In 1947 GE opened a plant in Waterford, New York, for manufacture of siUcones, and in 1949 Union Carbide opened a siUcone manufacturing plant in Tonawanda, New York. 

Sulfur consumption reached peak levels by the beginning of the 1990s. The apparent annual consumption of sulfur in all forms in the United States nearly reached 13.2 million metric tons by 1995. World sulfur production increased steadily from 53.6 million metric tons in 1984 to an all-time high of 60.1 million metric tons in 1989, declining to 54.6 million metric tons in 1995. 

Tin [7440-31 -5] is one of the world s most ancient metals. When and where it was discovered is uncertain, but evidence points to tin being used in 3200—3500 BC. Ancient bron2e weapons and tools found in Ur contained 10—15 wt % tin. In 79 ad, Pliny described an alloy of tin and lead now commonly called solder (see Solders and brazing alloys). The Romans used tinned copper vessels, but tinned iron vessels did not appear until the fourteenth century in Bohemia. Tinned sheet for metal containers and tole (painted) ware made its appearance in England and Saxony about the middle of the seventeenth century. Although tinplate was not manufactured in the United States until the early nineteenth century, production increased rapidly and soon outstripped that in all other countries (1). 

Charcoal was an important industrial raw material in the United States for iron ore reduction until it was replaced by coal in the early 1880s. Charcoal production increased, however, because of the demand for the by-products acetic acid, methanol, and acetone. In 1920, nearly 100 by-product recovery plants were in operation in the United States, but the last plant ceased operation in 1969. 

Total value of roundwood production increased by 6,730 million between 1986 and 1991 even though production increased by less than 300 million ft (118) (Table 8). Much of this increase is direcdy attributable to rapidly rising stumpage prices. 

Finland. Here, too, restrictions are severe. Finland had total prohibition from 1919 until 1939, which destroyed the brewing industry. After repeal, new beer production was intermpted by World War II. The per capita consumption was 51.5 L in 1987. Production increased from 2.5 x 10 hL in 1975 to 3.6 X 10 hL in 1988. 

U.S. petroleum benzene prices since 1974 are Hsted in Table 6 (64). Until 1978, benzene prices were relatively stable and through 1985 they increased considerably, peaking in 1981 because of the increased demand for aromatics in the gasoline pool. At that time, there was also a large surplus of low priced imported benzene and a softening of the ethylbenzene—styrene market. The decline of cmde oil prices in 1986 caused a dramatic drop in domestic benzene prices. In 1987, U.S. benzene production increased 13.9% over 1986, and this rise was largely ascribed to a favorable export market for benzene derivatives... 

Figure 4 shows U.S. bromine production with respect to bromine production in the rest of the world. Israel, especially, has increased its production in recent years (51,52). Between 1976 and 1990 U.S. production fell from 234,000 to 177,000 metric tons Israel s production increased from 23,000 to 135,000 metric tons over that period. 

Goal Production. In 1860 world coal production was 122 x 10 t/yr. Production increased to 1140 x 10 t in 1913, giving a 4.2% aimual average rate of increase. The rate has slowed and been erratic since that time. Statistical data on world coal production from 1860 to 1960 is given in Reference 81. World coal and lignite production rose to about 4.7 x 10 t in 1988 (1). 

Adhesives and Sealants. Most industrial adhesives contain surface active components and additives, and air entrainment during their mechanical appHcation can significantly reduce joint strength. Defoamers are usually formulated into adhesives to protect users against such difficulties. Additional benefits, such as improved uniformity of products, increased throughput and reduced labor costs can also result from the use of defoamers during adhesive appHcation. The footwear and nonwoven fabric industries are extensive users of defoamers in this way. 

Crystallinity in ECH and ECH—EO finished products increases over time, and may be detected by x-ray analysis or differential scanning calorimetry. In synthesizing ECH—EO, the process is designed to maximize random monomer sequence and minimize crystallinity. The ECH—EO molecular ratio in these products ranges from approximately 3 1 to 1 1. 

Ethane feed gives the lowest cost of production and the lowest capital investment. As the feeds become successively heavier, cost of production increases as well as the capital investment required. Depending on the cost of feedstock and the value of the co-products, processing heavier feedstocks can lead to lower returns on investment. Table 13 shows the effect on capital investment for various feedstocks as well as for a range of capacities. 

Steel consumption is growing at less than 2% per year - it doubles about every 35 years. Polymer consumption is rising at about 5% per year - it doubles every 14 years. During times of boom - the l%0s and 1970s for instance - polymer production increased much faster than this, peaking at 18% per year (it doubled every 4 years), but it has now fallen back to a more modest rate. 

---