Motivations

Motivation is a somewhat imprecise science and undertaking. No guarantees for success exist. Each workplace needs to pay close attention to the motivational needs of the individuals who work in it or there will be no progress in attaining the desired safe behavior, and you will probably see a decrease in morale. Since morale is as difficult to define as is motivation, for the context here, let us use motivation to attain good morale. 

Although all the principles espoused here can apply to families, relationships, friendships, coworkers, teams, or anployees, most of the successes discussed are those relevant to the workplace. This is, of course, because the majority of our adult life is spent in the workplace. 

Some people believe motivation has the potential to answer everyone s problems. You may have heard such statements as If I were only motivated You should motivate me You should motivate him or her You are not motivated You had better get motivated or, All you have to do is find his/her hot button However, these statements, do not tell us what motivation reaUy is nor do they tell us how we can measure or even understand motivation. 

Motivation, in the broadest sense, is self-motivation, complex, and either need- or value-driven. Someone once stated that he believed hope was the secret ingredient to a person being motivated (the hope to accomplish a goal, a dream, or attain a need) there is reason to support this theory. However, possibly a better definition is motivation presnmes valuing, and values are learned behaviors thus, motivation, at least in part, is learned and can be tanght (Frymier, 1985). This definition provides us with the encouragement we need to go forward and achieve motivation for onrselves and others. 

If we want to be successfnl, we must believe that we can teach someone to be motivated toward specific outcomes (goals) or, at the least, be able to alter some unwanted behavior. On the other hand, we should not want to completely manipnlate an individnal to the point that he responds blindly to our motivational efforts. If that occnrred, we would lose that most important part of a person, the unique human will. 

Carnot s main motivation came from his admiration for the steam engine and the lack of theory about its operation. Cardwell writes  

Nevertheless, in spite of all this scientific knowledge and technological development there is no general theory of the heat-engine, applicable to all conceivable forms of heat-engine, whatever their working substances or their mechanical principles. He observes  

Machines which are not driven by heat, those which are driven by the power of men or of animals, by a fall of water, by the movement of air, etc., can be analyzed down to their last details by mechanical theory. Every event is predictable, all possible movements are in accordance with established general principles which are applicable in all circumstances. This, of course, is characteristic of a complete theory. A similar theory is obviously required for heat engines. (Cardwell, p. 192) 

Prom a research point of view, MTBE synthesis via reactive distillation still represents a major development in the field and an open door to novel and innovative processes. 

In much the same way that concentration can be viewed as a vector, it is possible to view a system of reactions as a vector as well. We now wish to explain how well-known reactor models, often studied in undergraduate chemical reaction engineering courses, can also be interpreted geometrically. In this section, we would like to describe the behavior of three fundamental reactor types PER, CSTR, and DSR. 

Note that the rate field is defined by the kinetics, irrespective of the particular reactor employed. Different reactor types will trace out different paths in concentration space according to the shape of the rate field. As will be shown, each type serves an important purpose in the formation of the AR. Let us begin with the simplest of continuous reactors, the PER. 

Children are born engineers. Everything they see, they want to change. Grown-up engineering, 

Biologists, generally more removed from the ultimate applications of their work than are engineers, are often motivated by the subjects of their study. They may feel empathy toward these subjects, and study them because they are interested. This study, of course, leads to more interest, and a strong bond can develop between the observer and the observed. Biologists are thus motivated more by their involvement with their subjects, and engineers by their involvement with the things they produce. 

Of course, the relatively recent trend toward studying cells and subcellular components has taken a lot of the attachment from the biologist and the object of study. It is hard to feel close to a cell. The idea behind this kind of study may also be to launch a commercial success. Nonetheless, biologists 

If I have ever made any valuable discoveries, it has been owing more to patient attention than to any other talent. 

There is a fundamental difference in methods used by scientists and by engineers. Biological scientists often perform experiments to ascertain new facts. Since many of their observations are related to phenomenon description, the pattern of scientific experimental episodes may be determined more by the observed phenomenon than by any regular scientific plan. Such is often the case while observing various life-forms in their natural habitat observations about eating only occur when the object of the attention decides to eat. Any attempt to tamper with the behavior of the being would result in criticisms of methods and observations, rendering them practically invalid. 

The mode of action of pesticides is extremely fascinating because the subject covers so many fields of biology and chemistry and has many practical implications. 

Relatively little has been published on the attainable region for reaction combined with separation. One of the first papers applied the concept of attainable region to find feasible compositions for systems with simultaneous reaction and 

Consider a system with the elementary irreversible reactions in series 

Now consider a two phase CSTR consisting of an isobaric flash separator with a simultaneous chemical reaction in the liquid phase, as shown in Fig. 6.1. 

We assume the liquid and vapor are in phase equilibrium, and that the volatilities of components B and C relative to A are constant and equal to 5 and 3, respectively. Therefore, the vapor in phase equilibrium vith the liquid reaction mixture will have more of the desired product B compared to the liquid phase. It is intuitive that removing vapor from a CSTR will help in removing the desired product from the reaction mixture, and is bound to improve the selectivity for the process. A model was developed by Gadewar et al. for the device in Fig. 6.1 to calculate the yield of B and selectivity to B with the conversion of A [16]. Activity-based rate expressions are used in formulating the model for reasons explained in Nisoli et al. [33]. 

The vapor compositions are determined by using a constant relative volatility model. Since both reactions are equimolar, Vjj = Vjj = 0. Eliminating L from (6.1) and (6. 2), we get 

Consider the simplest optimal control problem, in which we wish to find the 

Dealing with this problem is easy if Equation (3.5) could be integrated to provide an explicit solution for y in terms of u. Then one could substitute 

For the above reasons, and as a faulty design of system components may lead to a reduced availability of a system, entail unwanted repair costs, or may lead to failures with consequences that can be detrimental or even catastrophic, it is important to take into account detection, diagnosis of possible abnormal system behaviour and 

Borutzky, Bond Graph Model-based Fault Diagnosis of Hybrid Systems, 

Beyond model development for the purpose of analysis and simulation of the dynamic or the frequency domain behaviour, bond graphs have also proven useful as a tool for model-based FDI in engineering systems represented by continuous time models. Only recently, bond graph model-based FDI has also been used for systems described by a hybrid model. Following common terminology a system will be called a hybrid system for short if its dynamic behaviour is appropriately described by a hybrid model. In Chap. 2.1 of [1] Kowalewski rightly remarks  

A hybrid system is usually defined as a system which combines continuous and discrete dynamics. This definition is superficial. To be more precise, the term hybrid systems refers to models, not systems as such. A system is not hybrid by nature, but it becomes hybrid by modelling it this way. Whether it makes sense to build a hybrid model depends not only on the system, but also on the application and the purpose of the model. 

Considerations on what a hybrid system is may be found in [2-4]. Provan gives a formal definition in [5] that has been provided in AppendixA.2. 

The first of these considerations, the potential parallel between thioethers and phosphines, suggests that thioethers might have extensive and industrially useful coordination chemistry. This possibility spurred earlier efforts to examine the complexes of macrocyclic thioethers [5, 6]. 

Another source of interest came from biochemistry. Research on the blue copper proteins revealed unusual electronic properties (redox potential and kinetics, EPR and optical behavior) that were suspected of arising from interaction of the copper ion with a thioether group from methionine [7]. While crystallographic studies established a weak interaction (Cu -- - S 2.9 A) [8,9,10], its influence on the electronic properties of the Cu site is now considered questionable. Nevertheless, the controversy regarding the blue eopper proteins, like the analogy to phosphines, served to focus attention on the broad issue of how thioether coordination affects the electronic structure of transition metal ions. Homoleptic thioether complexes provide the best way of assessing these consequences, since no other groups obscure the effect of thioether coordination. 

Despite this interest in crown thioethers, arduous synthetic routes to the ligands impeded extensive investigation of their chemistry until recently. However, advances in synthetic methodology in the last five years has opened the door to work on the coordination chemistry of these ligands. This is particularly true of 9S3, the first synthesis of which proceeded in such low yield (0.04%) as to preclude further study [11]. 

Fruitful exploration of crown thioether coordination chemistry also had to await the routine availability of X-ray diffraction facilities. The paramagnetism of many crown thioether complexes vitiates the utility of NMR, while uninformative charge transfer bands dominate their optical spectra. Hence X-ray diffraction has proven indispensable to the development of crown thioether chemistry it provides one of the few ways of determining the ligand denticity, as well as the coordination geometry and stereochemistry at the metal. More fundamentally, however, the issues raised by these complexes often focus on metrical features and ligand 

Crown thioethers prompt attempts to impose poly(thioether) coordination upon metal ions, even those for which few thioether complexes were previously known. As a class, simple thioethers (e.g. MejS) are not particularly good ligands for both electronic and steric reasons. Thioethers exhibit weaker a-donor and 7t-acceptor ability than, for example, phosphines. Consequently they also show less binding affinity. In addition, the appreciable bulk of their terminal alkyl groups further hinders complexation. This latter factor is partially circumvented in acyclic polythioethers, and such ligands display respectable chelate effects. 

Gas-phase infrared spectroscopy is a more recent addition to the structure-determination toolbox for biological molecules. Using the techniques of mass 

The synthesis of novel materials with high carrier mobilities is one of the major goals in the field of photoconductive polymers. Within the last years different approaches have been pursued to reach this goal. First, the photoconductive properties of conjugated polymers like poly(phenylenevinylene) and poly(methyl phenylsilane) have been investigated [12]. Another approach are liquid crystals which are the topic of the first Chapter. The third way to realize 

Both compounds are derivatives of triphenylamine, a well-known photoconductor. If thin films of TPD and TAPC are prepared by vacuum evaporation both compounds form metastable glasses. In such glasses carrier mobUities up to 10 cm A s for TPD [13] and 10 cm A s for TAPC [14] have been reported. But both TAPC and TPD glasses are metastable and have a strong tendency to crystallize. If the molecules are imbedded in a polymer matrix, e.g. polycarbonate or polystyrene, morphologically stable materials are formed, but the mobilities decrease drastically [13]. 

Several attempts have been made to overcome the problems with metastable TPD and TAPC glasses. Recently we described the synthesis of 3,6-bis[(9-hexyl-3-carbazolyl)ethy-nyl]-9-hexylcarbazole 27, a trimeric model compound of poly(carbazolylene ethynylene) [15], This material shows a glass transition temperature of 41 °C and forms glasses which are stable for more than a year. Mobilities up to 10 cm A s ( = 6 10 V/cm, T = 30 °C) have been measured by the time-of-flight technique. 

Another interesting approach are starburst compoimds with high glass transition temperatures. So 4,4, 4 -tris(N-carbazolyl)triphenylamine, which has been published recently [16], shows a glass transition at 151 °C and forms a stable glass. 

Beginning with the work of Thomalia [17] in 1986, starburst molecules (dendrimers) have achieved enormous interest within the last years. Dendrimers are highly branched regular molecules, which are usually prepared by stepwise reactions. In many cases the behaviour of dendritic macromolecules are different from that of linear polymers, e. g. the former 

The shortened and strengthened bonds are indeed crucial to surface energetics. For example, a considerable percentage contraction occurs to the first and the second layer of the diamond surface, which leads to a substantial reduction in the surface energy according to MD calculations [61]. The contraction varies from 11.2 to 56.2 % depending on the surface plane and the potential function used in computation. Furthermore, the classical theories of continuum medium mechanics and the statistic thermodynamics deal with only the consequence but the atomistic origin of the mesoscopic mechanics. 

Herein, nearly monodisperse silver chalcogenide quantum dots were successfully synthesized through a facile colloidal method, and their thermoelectric 

Lastly this text is addressed to materials scientists for whom the mechanical properties frequently and traditionally are of prime interest. Electrochemical aspects are generally not sufficiently considered with respect to their importance for the preparation and durability of the material and optimization of its function. Thus, the fields of ceramics, in general, and electroceramics, in particular, are addressed. 

The chemistry and physics of defects play a key role in the following text [1,2]. After all, in the classical examples of water in chemistry and silicon in physics it is not so much the knowledge of the structure or of the chemical bonding that has made it possible to carry out subtle and controllable tuning of properties, but rather the phenomenological knowledge of the nature of relevant particles, such as HaO ions, OH ions or foreign ions in water that determine its acid-base and redox chemistry. In the case of silicon the relevant particles are conduction electrons and electron holes, which, on account of their properties, determine the (redox) chemistry and the electronic properties. 

Focusing on such relevant particles leads to the generalized concept of defect chemistry that permits the treatment of internal chemical processes within the solid state (in this context Fig. 1.1 is illustrative). In processes, in which the structure of the 

If this attempt at motivation is an attack on open doors , then the sentences I have written may at least act as a guide for the path ahead. 

The text concentrates on ionic materials and on electrical and electrochemical properties in order to keep the contents within bounds. On the whole, we will refer to a mixed conductor , for which ion and electron transport are both important and with regard to which the pure electronic conductor and the pure ionic conductor represent special cases. We will specifically address material transport with regard to its significance for electrochemistry and reaction kinetics. Whenever necessary, indications of the generality of the concepts are interspersed. In order to make the treatment reasonably complete, references are given whenever a detailed consideration is beyond the scope of the book. 

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Separation of families by merely increasing the resolution evidently can not be used when the two chemical families have the same molecular formula. This is particularly true for naphthenes and olefins of the formula, C H2 , which also happen to have very similar fragmentation patterns. Resolution of these two molecular types is one of the problems not yet solved by mass spectrometry, despite the efforts of numerous laboratories motivated by the refiner s major interest in being able to make the distinction. Olefins are in fact abundantly present in the products from conversion processes. 

The industrial motivations underlying this work are the following ... 

For clutter suppression, the test statistic used by the noncoherent detector has been proposed as an interesting output signal [1], This was motivated by the fact that, provided that transient and noise models are valid, the test statistic reflects the likelihood that a transient is present. 

One approach to a mathematically well defined performance measure is to interpret the amplitude values of a processed signal as realizations of a stochastic variable x which can take a discrete number of values with probabilities P , n = 1,2,..., N. Briefly motivated in the introduction, then an interesting quality measure is the entropy H x) of the amplitude distribu-... 

Undercuts and cracks are represented in the digitised radiograph as local greyvalue minima (see Fig. 2). This motivates the application of edge-detecting operators. 

While a number of proteins have been crystallized in this manner, the majority of studies have focused on a robust system comprising the tetrameric protein streptavidin and the vitamin biotin. The choice of this system is primcirily motivated by the strong bond between biotin and streptavidin (having an association equilibrium constant, Ka Tbe binding properties were recently... 

There has been a surge of research activity in the physical chemistry of membranes, bilayers, and vesicles. In addition to the fundamental interest in cell membranes and phospholipid bilayers, there is tremendous motivation for the design of supported membrane biosensors for medical and pharmaceutical applications (see the recent review by Sackmann [64]). This subject, in particular its biochemical aspects, is too vast for full development here we will only briefly discuss some of the more physical aspects of these systems. The reader is referred to the general references and some additional reviews [65-69]. 

This introductory section continues with a subsection that presents the general motivation for using symmetry and ends with a short subsection that lists the various types of molecular symmetry. 

Rotational syimnetry is used here as an example to explain the motivation for using syimnetry in molecular physics it will be discussed in more detail in section AT4.3.2. 

We introduce a smgle excited electronic state surface at this point. The motivation is severalfold, (i)... 

A clear, comprehensive discussion of the many facets of nonlinear optics. The emphasis is on optical effects, such as hannonic generation. The treatment of nonlinear spectroscopy, although occupying only a fraction of the book, is clear and physically well-motivated. 

The desire to understand catalytic chemistry was one of the motivating forces underlying the development of surface science. In a catalytic reaction, the reactants first adsorb onto the surface and then react with each other to fonn volatile product(s). The substrate itself is not affected by the reaction, but the reaction would not occur without its presence. Types of catalytic reactions include exchange, recombination, unimolecular decomposition, and bimolecular reactions. A reaction would be considered to be of the Langmuir-Hinshelwood type if both reactants first adsorbed onto the surface, and then reacted to fonn the products. If one reactant first adsorbs, and the other then reacts with it directly from the gas phase, the reaction is of the Eley-Ridel type. Catalytic reactions are discussed in more detail in section A3.10 and section C2.8. 

A catalyst is a material that accelerates a reaction rate towards thennodynamic equilibrium conversion without itself being consumed in the reaction. Reactions occur on catalysts at particular sites, called active sites , which may have different electronic and geometric structures than neighbouring sites. Catalytic reactions are at the heart of many chemical industries, and account for a large fraction of worldwide chemical production. Research into fiindamental aspects of catalytic reactions has a strong economic motivating factor a better understanding of the catalytic process... 

A double-zeta (DZ) basis in which twice as many STOs or CGTOs are used as there are core and valence AOs. The use of more basis functions is motivated by a desire to provide additional variational flexibility so the LCAO-MO process can generate MOs of variable difhiseness as the local electronegativity of the atom varies. 

A fiirther theme is the development of teclmiques to bridge the length and time scales between truly molecular-scale simulations and more coarse-grained descriptions. Typical examples are dissipative particle dynamics [226] and the lattice-Boltzmaim method [227]. Part of the motivation for this is the recognition that... 

These approaches are generally interwoven, and some of the most exciting developments in chemical dynamics have been associated with their combinations. This section very briefly describes the motivation behind and the application of these teclmiques. 

An even coarser description is attempted in Ginzburg-Landau-type models. These continuum models describe the system configuration in temis of one or several, continuous order parameter fields. These fields are thought to describe the spatial variation of the composition. Similar to spin models, the amphiphilic properties are incorporated into the Flamiltonian by construction. The Flamiltonians are motivated by fiindamental synnnetry and stability criteria and offer a unified view on the general features of self-assembly. The universal, generic behaviour—tlie possible morphologies and effects of fluctuations, for instance—rather than the description of a specific material is the subject of these models. 

One of the motivations for studying Van der Waals complexes and clusters is that they are floppy systems with similarities to the transition states of chemical reactions. This can be taken one stage further by studying clusters that actually are precursors for chemical reactions, and can be broken up to make more than one set of products. A good example of this is H2-OH, which can in principle dissociate to fonn either H2 + OH or H2O + H. Indeed, dissociation to H2 O -t H is energetically favoured the reaction H2 + OH—> H2 O -t H is exothennic by about 5000... 

Herring C 1949 Surface tension as a motivation for sintering The Physics of Powder Metallurgy ed W E Kingston (New York McGraw-Hiii) pp 143-79... 

A somewhat different viewpoint motivates this chapter, which stiesses the added meaning that the complex nature of the wave function lends to our understanding. Though it is only recently that this aspect has come to the forefront, the essential point was affimied already in 1972 by Wigner [5] in his famous essay on the role of mathematics in physics. We quote from this here at some length ... 

The motivation comes from the early work of Landau [208], Zener [209], and Stueckelberg [210]. The Landau-Zener model is for a classical particle moving on two coupled ID PES. If the diabatic states cross so that the energy gap is linear with time, and the velocity of the particle is constant through the non-adiabatic region, then the probability of changing adiabatic states is... 

The MMVB force field has also been used with Ehrenfest dynamics to propagate trajectories using mixed-state forces [84]. The motivation for this is... 

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