Motivation: behavioral theories

Teitelbaum and Stellar, 1954 Teitelbaum and Epstein, 1962b). Theories proliferated in terms of complex systems of the hypothalamus involved in the control of motivational behaviors, with much discussion of whether there was need to infer multiple distinct circuits for the control of different motivational states, such as hunger, thirst, sexual drive, exploration, play, fear and anxiety, or whether by contrast there was some integrating principle that could bring these components together into a common unifying process such as activation or arousal (Valenstein et al., 1970). 

The Goal-Directed and the Behavioral Schools of study represent two of the most popular views of motivation. In the Goal-Directed School of Motivation, the inner drives of individuals are examined to explain why human behavior takes place. Examples of goal-directed theories include the Needs-Hierarchy Theory, the Need-Achievement Theory, and the Motivational Hygiene Theory. Examples of... 

How are goal-directed theories different from the behavioral theories of motivation ... 

The path-goal theory looks at the leader s style, the characteristics of the subordinate, and the work situation. Path-goal assumes that subordinates are motivated when they are capable of performing the work, believe their efforts will result in a specific outcome, and feel the reward for the work is worthwhile. Path-goal looks at the components of leader behaviors, subordinate characteristics, and task characteristics to determine the leader s impact on subordinates motivation. The theory works by the leader looking at the needs of the subordinates, and fitting her style to that need. 

Motivated by a puzzling shape of the coexistence line, Kierlik et al. [27] have investigated the model with Lennard-Jones attractive forces between fluid particles as well as matrix particles and have shown that the mean spherical approximation (MSA) for the ROZ equations provides a qualitatively similar behavior to the MFA for adsorption isotherms. It has been shown, however, that the optimized random phase (ORPA) approximation (the MSA represents a particular case of this theory), if supplemented by the contribution of the second and third virial coefficients, yields a peculiar coexistence curve. It exhibits much more similarity to trends observed in... 

Another influential theory of motivation was proposed by Herzberg et al. (1959). This theory postulates only two levels of motivation. Herzberg contrasted wages, working conditions, interpersonal relations and supervisory behavior which he called "hygiene" factors, with recognition, achievement, responsibility, and advancement which he called "motivators."... 

Recent research on motivation theories has provided more elaborate models of the factors which drive human behavior and has taken into account issues of individual differences and the influence of the social and cultural... 

After the first theoretical work of Tamm (1932), a series of theoretical papers on surface states were published (for example, Shockley, 1939 Goodwin, 1939 Heine, 1963). However, there has been no experimental evidence of the surface states for more than three decades. In 1966, Swanson and Grouser (1966, 1967) found a substantial deviation of the observed fie Id-emission spectroscopy on W(IOO) and Mo(lOO) from the theoretical prediction based on the Sommerfeld theory of metals. This experimental discovery has motivated a large amount of theoretical and subsequent experimental work in an attempt to explain its nature. After a few years, it became clear that the observed deviation from free-electron behavior of the W and Mo surfaces is an unambiguous exhibition of the surface states, which were predicted some three decades earlier. 

I suspect, then, that no reasons responsiveness theory will by itself provide a satisfactory account of motivational compulsion or enable us to preserve a plausible and significant distinction between compulsive and weak-willed behavior. (I discuss this distinction in Watson 1977.) Nothing in these criticisms shows that the relevant notion of control cannot be identified with the capacity for sensitivity to reasons (or normative competence). They do show, however, that this capacity cannot be understood solely in terms of susceptibility to counterincentives. 

When motivation became the object of scientific study, the same kind of exceptions to rational choice soon became apparent. Pavlov came up with the most robust solution—conditioned behavior, refined to conditioned motives, stated definitively in . H. Mowrer s two-factor theory (1947).1 In this form, Plato s passions seemed discernible in parametric research, and the ancient dual model was perpetuated. 

The MIF phenomenon was first observed by Clayton in 1973 for the isotopic oxygen content in the earliest solids in the solar system, the so-called calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) in carbonaceous chondritic meteorites [1]. The slope of versus plot for the CAIs was close to unity, the CAIs being equally deficient in the heavy O isotopes, deficient in the S notation sense, while the ozone is equally enriched in those isotopes in that sense, as in Figure 2.2. Both are examples of an MIF. Interest in this striking phenomenon for the CAIs is motivated by what it may reveal about the formation of the early solar system. Standard reaction rate transition state theory [3], and behavior of oxygen an other isotope fractionation in many other systems, would have led, instead, to the slope... 

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