First developers

One of the techniques capable of being used "on stream" is the novel INCOTEST technique, see figure 2, which measures wall thickness of piping and vessels through an insulation layer with a maximum thickness of 10 centimetres. This system is based on pulsed eddy currents, was first developed in the United States, and is now being commercialised and extensively validated for a number of applications. 

The mathematical treatment was first developed by Lord Rayleigh in 1879, and a more exact one by Bohr has been reviewed by Sutherland [103], who gives the formula... 

Since shallow-level impurities have energy eigenvalues very near Arose of tire perfect crystal, tliey can be described using a perturbative approach first developed in tire 1950s and known as effective mass theoiy (EMT). The idea is to approximate tire band nearest to tire shallow level by a parabola, tire curvature of which is characterized by an effective mass parameter m. ... 

CIIARMM was first developed as a united atom force field and parameters for some amino acids have been published B. R. Brooks et al.. 1 Comp. ( hem.. 4, 1H7 fl9K3). Siihseqiient changes to the functional form and param eters h ave been published W. Reiher, Ph.D.. TIarvard but most recent parameter develop-... 

Column chromatography was first developed by the American petroleum chemist D. T. Day in 1900. 

J. Rebek, Jr., (1987) first developed a new synthesis of Kemp s acid and then extensively explored its application in model studies. The synthesis involves the straightforward hydrogenation (A. Steitz, 1968), esterification and methylation of inexpensive 1,3,5-benzenetricar-boxylic acid (trimesic acid 30/100 g). The methylation of the trimethyl ester with dimethyl sulfate, mediated by lithium diisopropylamide (V. J. Shiner, 1981), produced mainly the desired aff-cis-1,3,5-trimethyl isomer, which was saponified to give Kemp s acid. 

AMBER was first developed as a united atom force field [S. J. Weiner et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 106, 765 (1984)] and later extended to include an all atom version [S. J. Weiner et al., J. Comp. Chem., 7, 230 (1986)]. HyperChem allows the user to switch back and forth between the united atom and all atom force fields as well as to mix the two force fields within the same molecule. Since the force field was developed for macromolecules, there are few atom types and parameters for small organic systems or inorganic systems, and most calculations on such systems with the AMBER force field will fail from lack of parameters. 

When first developed, potentiometry was restricted to redox equilibria at metallic electrodes, limiting its application to a few ions. In 1906, Cremer discovered that a potential difference exists between the two sides of a thin glass membrane when opposite sides of the membrane are in contact with solutions containing different concentrations of H3O+. This discovery led to the development of the glass pH electrode in 1909. Other types of membranes also yield useful potentials. Kolthoff and Sanders, for example, showed in 1937 that pellets made from AgCl could be used to determine the concentration of Ag+. Electrodes based on membrane potentials are called ion-selective electrodes, and their continued development has extended potentiometry to a diverse array of analytes. 

Electron Microprobe A.na.Iysis, Electron microprobe analysis (ema) is a technique based on x-ray fluorescence from atoms in the near-surface region of a material stimulated by a focused beam of high energy electrons (7—9,30). Essentially, this method is based on electron-induced x-ray emission as opposed to x-ray-induced x-ray emission, which forms the basis of conventional x-ray fluorescence (xrf) spectroscopy (31). The microprobe form of this x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy was first developed by Castaing in 1951 (32), and today is a mature technique. Primary beam electrons with energies of 10—30 keV are used and sample the material to a depth on the order of 1 pm. X-rays from all elements with the exception of H, He, and Li can be detected. 

Carbon disulfide [75-15-0] is a clear colorless liquid that boils at 46°C, and should ideally be free of hydrogen sulfide and carbonyl sulfide. The reaction with alkaU cellulose is carried out either in a few large cylindrical vessels known as wet chums, or in many smaller hexagonal vessels known as dry chums. In the fully continuous viscose process, a Continuous Belt Xanthator, first developed by Du Pont, is used (15). 

Coriohs meters were first developed in the 1970s and continue to be improved. These meters ate being appHed in many areas that were commonly metered by other flow meter technologies. The greatest appHcation has been in food and chemical processing. 

The primary use of EIA when it was first developed was for histological labeling and localization of specific cell macromolecules. Eor example, enzymes labeled with peroxidase were used to locate specific cellular compartments and stmctures for microscopic examination. The flexibiUty of EIA was recognized quickly and it was adapted for use as a laboratory assay. 

Significant improvement in the fiber stmctuie of leather is finally achieved by using microfibers as fine as 0.001—0.0001 tex (0.01—0.001 den). With this microfiber, a man-made grain leather Sofrina (Kuraray Co., Ltd.) with a thin surface layer (Fig. 7), and a man-made suede Suedemark (Kuraray Co., Ltd.) with a fine nap (Fig. 8) were first developed for clothing, and have expanded their uses. Ultrasuede (Toray Industries, Inc.) also uses microfibers with a rather thick fineness of 0.01 tex (0.1 den). Contemporary (1995) man-made leathers employ microfibers of not mote than 0.03 tex (0.3 den) to obtain excellent properties and appearance resembling leather. 

Dry-battery mercury anodes are pressed compacts of zinc—mercury amalgam. They were first developed and produced during World War II for walkie-talkie communica tion systems. Practically all hearing aids employ this type of battery in the 1990s. 

The term e/(e — 1), which appears in equations 1 and 2, was first developed to account for the sensible heat transferred by the diffusing vapor (1). The quantity S represents the group ratio of total transported energy to convective heat transfer. Thus it may be thought of as the fractional... 

First developed in Germany by I. G. Farben (W. Reppe) during the 1930s, PVP was subsequentiy widely used in Germany as a blood-plasma substitute and extender during World War II (69). In the United States, it has been manufactured since 1956 by ISP, and more recentiy by BASF. 

Certain species of the D bra liensis complex may cause mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, a form seen most frequently in northern and central South America. The patient first develops skin infections which later metastasize to produce highly disfiguring mucocutaneous lesions of the oronasopharynx. 

Cordials were said to be produced in ancient Egypt and Athens. Commercial production started in the Middle Ages when alchemists, physicians, and monks were searching for the "elixir of life." Many wek-known cordials were developed in this period, such as Benedictine and Chartreuse, both bearing the names of the monasteries where they were first developed. 

Another modification to the vertical coke oven process, dry quenching of the coke as first developed in the GIS (13), started becoming of interest in the 1960s and has continued to grow steadily. Using dry quenching, the coke is discharged into a hot car and is quickly transported and dumped into a... 

Decaffeinated coffee products represented 18% of the coffee consumed in 1991 in the United States (31). Decaffeinated coffee was first developed commercially in Europe about 1900. The process as described in a 1908 patent (35) consists of first, moisturizing green coffee to at least 20% to facilitate transport of caffeine through the cell wall, and then contacting the moistened beans with solvents. 

Current density can be increased without impairing the quaUty of the copper by polishing the cathode surface by brief periodic current reversals (PCR). Reversed current electrolysis, first developed for electroplating, was tested in 1952 for copper refining. Although good results were obtained, no suitable electrical equipment for current reversal was available. The thyristor-controUed siUcon rectifier, introduced in the 1960s, provided a means for... 

---