Test methods

The most important tests on bonded joints are targeted at the determination of the strength under precisely defined conditions. In order to obtain comparable results from such tests on different test stations, for example, at the adhesive manufacturer and the adhesive user, the test conditions have to be stipulated in detail and must be binding. For this purpose, test standards have been issued by the German Institute for Standardization (DIN) and the European Standards (EN) in cooperation with interested technical groups. The standards for tests in the held of adhesive technology, for example, contain indications regarding material and dimensions of test pieces, the test method to be applied (test equipment, test speed), if required even surface pretreatment of test pieces and other test criteria to be taken into account. 

The continuously advancing technological developments inevitably lead to changes in these rules and regulations. The latest issues of the standards can be inquired at 

Beuth-Verlag GmbH Burggrafenstrasse 6, 10772 Berlin www.beuth.de or www.cenorm.be 

The test methods are subdivided into two categories, destructive and nondestructive methods. One of the latter, the ultrasonic method , is applied in special fields of adhesive technology, for example, in aircraft construction. It is based on the fact that sound waves in test pieces propagate differently, in dependence on the evenness of their structure, which can be disturbed by the presence of pores or imperfections, thus enabling the recording of failures. 

The most important methods, however, are the destructive test methods by means of special test pieces which allow for the determination of the strength of bonded joints. 

Standard test methods are applied primarily for characterizing adhesive tapes and assuring product quality. To check whether a tape is suitable for a specific application generally requires more specific tests, which may be agreed with the customer. 

Standard test methods for pressure-sensitive tapes are published by governmental and commercial organizations  

Europe Association des Fabricants Europeens de Rubans Auto-adhesifs (A.F.E.R.A.) [222] 

Adhesive properties of pressure-sensitive tapes are characterized primarily by three parameters peel adhesion, shear adhesion and tack. 

Peel adhesion is a highly characteristic property of a PSA. It gives the force per unit width required to remove a PSA tape by peeling from a test panel under defined separation speed and angle (0.3 m/min and generally 180° (Fig. 13), sometimes 90°). The backing can influence the results by its stiffness or stretchability. A more detailed discussion is given in [211, p. 61 IF]. 

The primary test methods observed in the US are published and maintained by ASTM Intema- 

The following ASTM testing descriptions are some of the most common test methods used for the films discussed in this publication. For full test details, please review the appropriate testing references. 

The fire behavior of the foams can be tested with a cone calorimeter, according to standard test protocols (10,12). The test method is used to determine the ignitabUity, heat release rates, mass loss rates, effective heat of combustion, and visible smoke development of materials and products. 

In this test the foam specimens are ignited with a conical radiant heater, the thermal flux applied on the specimen surface being 50 kW m . The specimens tested had a size of 100 mm by 100 mm with a thickness of 50 mm. The samples are wrapped in aluminum foil in order to have only the upper surface exposed to the radiant heater. Two specimens are used for each measurement and the results are averaged. 

Five different bodily substances can be tested to reveal illicit drugs  

Although this text mainly addresses urinalysis, I try to cover methods for beating all drug tests. 

It would be helpful if people could somehow find out which test they are getting ahead of time. Though caution must be taken. Asking your boss whether you re getting an EMIT or GC/MS would imply that you know too much, or seem too curious. The law doesn t protect you from unjust hiring practices, and your boss to be may refuse you employment for any reason. If simply drinking a cup of water makes the boss feel uncomfortable, the verdict may be guilty before you even take the test. 

Standardized Wear Testing Methods. A list of ASTM standardized wear test methods, organized by type of wear or surface damage, is given in Table 10. This is by no means a complete list of all available test methods many nonstandardized tests developed by individual companies or research organizations are also frequently used. Oftentimes if a suitable standard test method does not exist for a specific type of wear problem, an organization may decide to develop its own internal wear-testing standards best suited to its purposes. 

Variables to be Controlled in Wear Testing. Each wear mode is influenced by a different set of physical variables. Therefore, it is important to recognize what factors must be controlled, or at least monitored, in the design of wear testing procedures. Table 11 lists the major experimental variables that are controlled in conducting wear tests of various types. Environmental and other factors, which should he considered in interpreting the results of the wear tests, are also listed. Sometimes these secondary factors must be controlled in order to simulate a given application, but 

Form ai woar DesignatkHi Title Means of wear measurement 

Abrasive wear, 2-body 0 56 Test Method for Abrasiveness of Ink-Impregnated Fabric Printer Ribbon Surface profiling or other method 

Abrasive wear, 3-body 0 65 Test Method for Measuring Abrasion Using the Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Apparatus Mass loss 

This section discusses test methods applicable to filament wound structures. As discussed earlier, filament wound structures are primarily subjected to internal and/or external pressure that is resisted by the fiber. Greater attention is therefore given to fiber-dominated stiffness/strength-dominated material characterization. 

There are numerous test methods that have been used to characterize the fiber-dominated composite strength and stiffness for filament wound structures. A number of these test methods have been standardized by the ASTM D30 Committee [39], These standardized tests methods include  

ASTM D3379 standard test method for tensile strength and Young s modulus for high-modulus single-filament materials 

ASTM D4018-81 standard test method for tensile properties of continuous filament carbon and graphite yams, strands, roving, and tow 

Sealed cell - differential scanning calorimetry (SC-DSC) test and sealed cell -differential thermal analysis (SC-DTA) test A2. Properties to be tested 

The heat of decomposition and the extrapolated decomposition temperature of self—reactive substances are determined by DSC (or DTA), and fire and explosion hazards may be estimated from these parameters. 

Detonation SC-DSC 50/60 Steel tube 50/60(under sand) Ignitability Friction Drop ball Ballistic mortar Explosion underwater Electronic spark 

Deflagr- ation Ignitability SC-DSC 50/60(underwater) Ballistic mortar Ballistic pendulum time/pressure Flash point Drop ball Ballistic mortar Ballistic pendulum Explosion underwater Ignitability Time/pressure 

Mixing ignition SC-DSC Mixing ignition Modified iron vessel SC-DSC Mixing ignition Modified iron vessel Small dewar 

As a comparison, Table 3.3 shows a list of the properties tested and test procedures specified by the Geosynthetic Institute, Philadelphia, for testing and certification of HDPE geomembranes. The requirements are also indicated in Table 3.3. 

Several countries have their own test methods for cellular plastics, and the International Organization for Standards (ISO) Technical Committee on Plastics TC-61 has been developing international standards. Information can be obtained from the American Standards Institute. The most complete set of test procedures has been developed by the ASTM and is published in a new edition every year. 

It is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide detailed guidelines for the testing procedures, since these can be found in the references cited. Since standards are revised frequently, the most recent versions of these standards should be consulted. It should be noted that at the time of writing (early 2005) the FRC standards are still in a state of considerable flux. Indeed, it is the lack of a widely agreed upon body of standards that has inhibited the introduction of FRC into structural design codes such as ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete. 

In this section, the most important methods of testing coated papers will be described. The printability and the final print quality can often be successfully predicted on the basis of these relatively simple tests. 

This is a test to determine the water resistance of a coated paper. After wetting the test strip at constant speed and uniform pressure to create a precisely defined moisture content, the strip is printed with the testing ink while moving at constant or increasing speed through the press. 

Using a hole template to define ten separate measuring dots (representing precisely defined strip speeds), the color density of each of the ten dots is measured using a densitometer and then expressed relative to the full tone of the printed surface. When plotted as a function of printing speed, the color density values are a measure of the water resistance of the paper strip. 

When the paper strip is printed at constant speed, the measuring dots used to determine color density are chosen randomly. 

This test determines the tensile strength of the coating strip when subjected to ink sphtting during the printing process  

Additive effect cooperative action of two herbicides such that the observed response of a test plant to their joint application is equal to the response predicted to occur by an appropriate reference model. Synergism cooperative action of two herbicides such that the observed response of a test plant to their joint application appears to be greater than the response predicted to occur by an appropriate reference model. 

Antagonism cooperative action of two herbicides such that the observed response of a test plant to their joint application appears 

From the above discussion, it is evident that in order to test the observed response of a target plant to the application of a herbicide mixture and characterize it as additive, synergistic, or antagonistic, an expected or predicted response should be well defined. The calculation of a predicted response requires the selection of an appropriate reference model. Such a selection is not difficult when only one component of a mixture is biologically active on a target plant. When both components of a herbicide mixture are biologically active, the definition and selection of a reference model is more complex.  

The controversy as to what constitutes an acceptable definition and calculation of a predicted response has not been resolved. Nevertheless, two main reference models, known as the additive dose model (ADM) and the multiplicative survival model (MSM), are generally acceptable for the detection of interactions and characterization of the joint action of herbicide/herbicide or herbicide/nonherbicide mixtures.  

The ADM is valid for studying the interactions of herbicides with other herbicides or nonherbicides that exhibit similar action. Under the assumptions of the ADM, the growth responses of a test plant to the joint application of two components of a herbicide mixture are equated to the sum of the responses to each chemical tested separately.Thus, the predicted dose-response relationships for a herbicide mixture using the ADM are such that if one component of the mixture is replaced at a constant proportion by the other, the predicted response remains unchanged. Methods developed for the prediction of plant responses to herbicide mixtures using the ASM include the isobole method, the ANOVA method, and the two-parameter method.  

A variety of international standard methods are available to test the susceptibility of various plastics to microbial 

Biostabiliser Incorporated into plastics Anti-fungi, algae and bacteria Prevent discoloration Stop cracking Prevent pitting Prevent brittleness Improve product life span Maintain aesthetic appeal Mediiun to long life 

Antimicrobial Within or coated on Mostly antibacterial Prevent discoloration Prevent odours Impart feel good factor Improve product hygiene Reduce contamination Intended long life 

It is appropriate for plasties that are used outdoors or in wet environments to be pre-treated or conditioned by artifieial weathering (exposure to UV light, condensation and water spray) or leaehing before testing. This also alleviates the hydrophobie effeet. 

ASTM Committee D-14 on Adhesives used to publish five test methods that were applicable to biological attack. Of these methods, four test methods have been withdrawn (without replacement) and are no longer recognized by ASTM. The methods can still be appUed for comparison purposes. 

Petrie, E.M., Handbook of Plastics and Elastomers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000. 

DeLoIUs, NJ., Adhesives, Adherends, Adhesion, 3rd ed., Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co. Inc., Huntington, NY, 1985. 

Kinloch, A.J., Environmental Failure of Structural Adhesive Joints—A Literature Survey, Explosives Research and Development Establishment, UK, ERDL Technical Note No. 95, Unlimited Distribution (AD 784 890), 1973. 

Wangsness, D.A., Snstained load durability of stractural adhesives. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Applied Polymer Symposia, 32 296-300,1977. bas on symposium on Durability of Adhesive Bonded Stractures held at Picatinny Arsenal, October 27-29,1976. 

This chapter is aimed at expanding upon the listings of standard test methods presented in the following Chapter 11 on Standardization Documents. The first section of the chapter lists 130 properties of cellular plastics and elastomers and tabulates the standard test methods (U.S., ISO and British Standards) known to be applicable to each. Only number designations are given. The reader will find the titles and complete citations for the standards in Chapter 11. A key to the symbols used is given to indicate the type of cellular materials used (flexible or rigid) and a number of other matters of interest. 

The second section is a somewhat detailed discussion of twenty-two (22) foam properties tested by standard test methods. In most cases only one or a few methods are listed and discussed, but, in the case of combustion properties a total of thirteen (13) methods are considered. This emphasis was made partly because of the considerable attention given to this important subject in recent years. 

The third section is a brief invited presentation of several non-standardized test methods currently in use. These methods are thermal analysis, analytical pyrolysis, and molecular-weight determination and distribution. 

A biocide eannot be advertised as having certain effects unless these elaims have been supported by testing. Various standard and non-standard test methods can be used to evaluate how effective a specific biocide is at protecting materials and users. They inelude agar plate tests, direct contamination of a test specimen and in-service tests, such as soil burial. Different test methods may be preferred for different biocide types. ISO 846, ISO 16869, ASTM G-2I and G-22, ASTM E-I428, DIN 53793, JIS Z 2911, NF-X4I-5I4 and EMPA 223/23 are some of the standards used. Articles discussing the available tests in an introductory fashion are available in the books of papers presented at recent Rapra Addcon World conferenees (www.polymer-books.com). 

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the biocides used in plastics varies enormously. OBPA has a low MIC value for most of the common organisms, but OIT requires mueh less biocide than OBPA for some species, and much more for others. 

Manufacturers of organic pigments frequently use additives in an attempt to improve parameters such as the wetting time and wetting volume and thus to enhance the dispersibility of their products. The decision about each individual approach is usually made on the basis of empirical data concerning the application properties of the products. This is understandable in view of the fact that the dispersibility of a pigment is known to depend on its medium and on the conditions under which it is applied, a problem that is so complex that it is solved best by carrying out a series of pilot scale experiments in different vehicles. 

This limit, which might be referred to as the ultimate tinctorial strength , reflects the maximum degree of dispersion which can be achieved in a particular vehicle system under a certain set of conditions. However, experimental results may deviate more or less from the theoretical concepts and an ideal dispersion is not normally realized not all agglomerates are broken down entirely. This, however, is of no consequence, because even the experimentally determined ultimate tinctorial strength is by no means considered a standard for industrial application technical operations are not always allowed to go to completion, and the dispersion process is often discontinued, mainly for economical reasons. 

A characteristic number may be derived from the difference between two points reflecting the increase in tinctorial strength, e.g., between two dispersion periods. 

This characteristic, known as the dispersion hardness DH, indicates the effort that is necessary to disperse a pigment [94]  

F2 represents the K/S value at the second degree of dispersion, at which at least 90% of the ultimate tinctorial strength F is reached. 

Adhesives and sealants may undergo progressive deterioration with time as a result of environmental factors. This may be the result either of chemical changes, for example, thermal degradation, polymer chain hydrolysis, or physical changes such as crazing and cracking caused by diffusion of environmental species into the polymeric materials. PI All these 

The mechanical properties of pol5mieric materials, such as adhesives and sealants, have to be considered in all applications. The mechanical behavior involves the deformation of a material under the influence of applied forces. The force can be applied either in compression (pressure), tension, or shear modes. The latter is applied tangentially to the material, and is very important in structural adhesives. 

For example, the physical properties of cured adhesives can be evaluated by measuring stress-strain properties. This can be done with a testing machine as shown in Fig. 1. The machine records force applied to a specimen of defined shaped as a function of either separation of the jaws of the specimen holder or the elongation of the sample. 

A curve, such as the one shown in Fig. 1, can be obtained. The tensile strength is defined as the maximum tensile force divided by the cross-sectional area (i.e., width x thickness) of the specimen while the ultimate elongation is the ratio between the final gauge separation and the initial gauge length in percentage as measured by adevice (extensiometer). 

This test gives the tensile stress property of the material, which can be represented by the following equation 1 1 

Irrespective of the method, it should be remembered that the relative corrosion rate before and after treatment is used as a basis of comparison. This is generally easier to determine and of more use than the absolute rate. It is also important to consider that the build-up, breakdown, and repair of films formed by adsorption-type inhibitors are not instantaneous processes, but may require times of the 

Accordingly, the limitations of spot readings, as determined by electrical corrosion rate meters and grab samples of fluids for metal ion analysis must be considered. In addition, because a corrosion rate meter gives readings only in electrically conducting media, readings are dependent on the conductivity of the medium and suitable corrections must be made for stream composition and/or 

Process stream analyses for dissolved metals such as Fe, among others, can be carried out quickly and cheaply, but are of questionable value in streams containing hydrogen sulfide, because its corrosion products usually will be insoluble sulfides. 

Test coupons are the most widely used tool in monitoring refinery corrosion and its treatment because they may be easily prepared, inserted, removed, and evaluated. Coupons are composed of metals similar to those of interest and exposed to similar conditions. 

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This is the ASTM D 2892 test method and corresponds to a laboratory technique defined for a distillation column having 15 to 18 theoretical plates and operating with a 5 1 reflux ratio. The test is commonly known as the TBP for True Boiling Point. 

Penetrability is the depth, expressed in tenths of a millimeter, a standard steel needle penetrates into a bitumen sample at 25°C. The needle carries a weight of 100 g and the test is applied for five seconds. The corresponding test method is relatively difficult to carry out and is defined in France by the standard NF T 66-004, and in the USA by the method ASTM D 583. Penetration is related to the viscosity. 

Calculational methods. Associating the analysis, the knowledge of the property-structure relationships, and the calculation methods has made possible the replacement of costly and arduous test methods by quicker tests whose results are linked by calculations to the characteristic under study. Some examples are the cetane number, in some cases, the octane number, or the characteristics of LPG (refer to Chapter 3). 

These specifications and characteristics are defined with references to standard test methods which the different parties to a contract should conduct for quality control. The tables that follow show specifically the standards that are applicable in France, but a more general table in Appendix 2 shows the main test methods commonly referenced in specifications. 

Specifications and test methods for gasoline (see AFNOR information document M15-001). 

Specifications and test methods for diesel fuel (normal and severe cold grades) (from the standard NF EN 590 see AFNOR information document M15-007 and M15-022). 

Specifications and test methods for jet fuel. The specifications of jet fuels are set at the international level and are written into the Aviation Fuel Quality Requirements for Jointly Operated Systems". 

Table 7.8, which gathers the French government specifications and test methods concerning hydrocarbon solvents, is divided into three parts ... 

Table 7.9 Specifications and test methods for naphthas. These products are industrial intermediates and are not subject to ...

Specifications and test methods for heavy fuel oil (in France, FOL). The French specifications distinguish two grades FOL No. 1 and the heavier ... 

Specifications and test methods for paraffins and waxes. There are no French specifications for these products, but only the customs ... 

Principal Standard Test Methods for Petroleum Products... 

A specification or standard for product characteristics is valid only if it is matched with references to well defined and recognized test methods, such that quality control tests conducted by the parties involved —client and supplier, for example— are comparable even if they are performed at different locations. 

In light of the above criterion, many test methods are standardized. The following pages contain a non-exhaustive list of the main test methods. 

Alphabetical list of the principal standardized test methods... 

Since 1994 when the test method was implemented in the inspection program of many paper mills, we test now regularly the steam drums in the most paper mills in Austria (see table 1). 

It was also shown, that serious defects were detected, which under normal circumstances could lead to dangerous situations in the following service periods and cannot be detected by the normal conventional testing method. 

The contribution wws elaborated in frame of complex program of the GA CR No. 101/96/K264 - Limit states of construction materials with utilisation of non-standard test methods. 

Munns, G.A. Georgiou, Non-destructive testing methods for adhesively bonded joint nspection - a review, INSIGHT, Vol 37, No 12, Dec 1995, pp 941-952... 

Nondestructive testing techniques for welded joints usually include visual, radiographic, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, and ultrasonic testing methods. Of interest in this paper is the radiographic testing (RT) technique. 

Thus, for years now wheels have been tested with eddy-currents with a special emphasis on finding superficial defects on the wheel s running surface. At the beginning, hand-guided probes were used which the tester slid across the surface that was to be tested. To do so, the wheel was placed on a turn table which the operator had to move manually. A higher test reliability in the transitional radius between the body and the bead wheel was achieved by using special form-fitted probes. Nonetheless, it was not possible to rule out completely that the wheel was not scanned 100 %. This test method did not allow for documentation and a subsequent reconstruction of the test. 

Special probe geometries and combinations of different types of magnetic field sensors make an important contribution to the further improvement of the eddy-current testing method and results in new applications. 

With this testing method an evaluation is possible within shortest time, i.e. directly after the heat impulse. The high temperature difference between a delamination and sound material is affected - among other parameters - by the thickness of the layer. Other parameters are size and stage of the delamination Generally, a high surface temperature refers to a small wall thickness and/or layer separation [4],... 

Nondestructive Testing Handbook Vol. 9, Special Nondestruetive Testing Methods , ASNT 1995... 

Compared with now used industrial film radiography our computerized X-ray TV introscope has higher sensitivity. The efficiency of our X-ray TV testing method is 15-2(1 times... 

This paper describes the result obtained in a study of AFCEN (French Society for Design and Construction Rules for Nuclear Island Components) in order to characterize dye penetrant product family, based on experimental test methods of french standards NFA 09.520 and NFA 09.521. In particular, sensitivity tests have been carried out on artificial defects, and correlated with tests on real defects. Some tests on penetrant washability have also been performed. The results obtained with these three series of tests show that the choiee of a dye penetrant product family is not without influency on results obtained, and that is not so simple to make the good choice which could, in certain cases, be the less bad compromise. 

Due to the outer circumference of the silo, about 25 meters, a non- or rarely destructive testing method was needed for the localization. Because the building was still in use, it was only accessable from the exterior side. We chose the ultrasonic pulse-echo-technique as an appropriate way of doing the testing. 

This is because on one hand, heav wave is weaker and on the other hand, photoelastic testing method is unfavorable for observing the sound field of axial symmetry. The sound field (see Fig.4) excited by strip ciystal in solid is observed with photoelastic testing method. The wavefront of head wave can be see in Fig.4, which is a circumstantial evidence of wavefront of head wave excited just by point-shape crystal. We can calculate... 

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