Nondestructive methods

Doyle, J. L., Bondurant P. D., Johnson, R. F., (1994) Laser-Based Profilometry Point Triangulation Technology forNDE Applications, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Special Nondestructive Methods, Vol. 9, pp. 141-157. 

V. M. MaUiorta, TestingHardened Concrete Nondestructive Methods, Iowa State University Press, Ames, la., and American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Mich., 1976, pp. 136-137. 

XRD is an excellenr, nondestructive method for identifying phases and characterizing the structural properties of thin films and multilayers. It is inexpensive and easy to implement. The future will see more use of GIXD and depth dependent measurements, since these provide important information and can be carried out on lab-based equipment (rather than requiring synchrotron radiation). Position sensitive detectors will continue to replace counters and photographic film. 

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) is a nondestructive method used for elemental analysis of materials. An X-ray source is used to irradiate the specimen and to cause the elements in the specimen to emit (or fluoresce) their characteristic X rays. A detector s)rstem is used to measure the positions of the fluorescent X-ray peaks for qualitative identiflcation of the elements present, and to measure the intensities of the peaks for quantitative determination of the composition. All elements but low-Z elements—H, He, and Li—can be routinely analyzed by XRF. 

Other techniques that can support predictive maintenance include acoustic emissions, eddy-current, magnetic particle, residual stress and most of the traditional nondestructive methods. 

A novel nondestructive method for the determination of total charges and hence of EQ=Qy that is based on the CO displacement experiments has been worked out.795,796 This method has been applied to Pt(lll) and Pt(l 10) electrodes in contact with solutions at different pHs. For both Pt faces, the potential-of-zero total charge lies in a potential region similar to that forpc-Pt.8,10,11 It was found that thepztc depends on pH in different ways for Pt(l 11) and Pt(l 10), which demonstrates that not only is the pztc structure sensitive, but also that it varies with pH.795 The value of pztc for Pt(l 11) is more positive than that for Pt(l 10), and df j/dpHis higher for Pt( 111) than for Pt( 110). 

Two sections deal briefly with procedures for investigating the pathways used in biodegradation and biotransformation. They cover briefly the application of isotopes, and of nondestructive methods that include NMR, EPR, and x-ray analysis. They should be viewed in the wider context of procedures for evaluating the effectiveness of bioremediation that are covered in Chapter 13 and their application in Chapter 14. 

Raman spectroscopy A nondestructive method for the study of the vibrational band structure of materials, which has been extensively used for the characterization of diamond, graphite, and diamond-like carbon. Raman spectroscopy is so far the most popular technique for identifying sp bonding in diamond and sp bonding in graphite and diamond-like carbon. 

Total - The complete dissolution of the matrix by methods such as hydrofluoric acid, or measurement by nondestructive methods such as INAA. 

F. Asmar and G. Gisselnielsen, Extracellular phosphomono- and phosphodiestera.se as.sociated with and relea.sed by the roots of barley genotypes a nondestructive method for the measurement of the extracellular enzymes of roots. Biol. Fertil. Soils 25 117 (1997). 

X-ray fluorescence analysis is a nondestructive method to analyze rubber materials qualitatively and quantitatively. It is used for the identification as well as for the determination of the concentration of all elements from fluorine through the remainder of the periodic table in their various combinations. X-rays of high intensity irradiate the solid, powder, or liquid specimen. Hence, the elements in the specimen emit X-ray fluorescence radiation of wavelengths characteristic to each element. By reflection from an analyzing crystal, this radiation is dispersed into characteristic spectral lines. The position and intensity of these lines are measured. 

The reluctance of museum curators and collectors to allow permanent damage to antiquities was, until not long ago, the main reason for the small amount of analytical work done on ancient coins. This was understandable since performing chemical analysis required removing a sample from the coin or damaging its surface, which meant either the destruction or defacement of, at least, a portion of a coin. More recently, however, a number of nondestructive methods of analysis such as neutron activation, X-ray fluorescence, and some techniques of surface analysis have been successfully applied to obtain information about ancient coins and the people and societies involved in their production (Carter 1993 Barrandon et al. 1977). 

These advances in correcting for mass spectral drift have far-reaching implications for the potential of PyMS in the microbiology laboratory. However, there are still some problems associated with the technique (1) it is hardly a nondestructive method, so information on the structure and identity of the molecules producing the pyrolysate will be lost, (2) data acquisition takes 2... 

ESR IMAGING A NONDESTRUCTIVE METHOD FOR SPATIALLY RESOLVED POLYMER DEGRADATION... 

ESRI is a nondestructive method for the study of degradation, which is an important advantage, especially for crystalline polymers. The major advantage of ESRI compared with FTIR methods is its sensitivity to early events in the aging process. Further developments of ESRI methods are expected to be of help in the ultimate goal accurate predictions of lifetimes for polymeric materials and a better understanding of the environmental factors. 

When investigating opaque or transparent samples, where the laser light can penetrate the surface and be scattered into deeper regions, Raman light from these deeper zones also contributes to the collected signal and is of particular relevance with non-homogeneous samples, e.g., multilayer systems or blends. The above equation is only valid, if the beam is focused on the sample surface. Different considerations apply to confocal Raman spectroscopy, which is a very useful technique to probe (depth profile) samples below their surface. This nondestructive method is appropriate for studies on thin layers, inclusions and impurities buried within a matrix, and will be discussed below. 

A rapid, nondestructive method based on determination of the spatial distribution of ATP, as a potential bioindicator of microbial presence and activity on monuments, artworks, and other samples related to the cultural heritage, was developed [57], After cell lysis, ATP was detected using the bioluminescent firefly luciferin-luciferase system and the method was tested on different kinds of surfaces and matrices. Figure 3 reports the localization of biodeteriogen agents on a marble specimen. Sample geometry is a critical point especially when a quantitative analysis has to be performed however, the developed method showed that with opti-... 

Pipeline systems shall be tested after construction to the requirements of this Code except for pretested fabricated assemblies, pretested tie-in sections, and tie-in connections. The circumferential welds of welded tie-in connections not pressure tested after construction shall be examined by radiographic, ultrasonic, or other nondestructive methods in accordance with para. PL-3.19.2. 

Fractionation Methods. Ultrafiltration and gel filtration are nondestructive methods which, based on limited experience, can be used for fractionation of mineral complexes from digests. In earlier studies mineral absorption on the gel material was a problem. Lonnerdal (30) introduced a method of treating dextran gels with sodium borohydride in order to eliminate the mineral-binding sites on the gel. In preliminary studies we have recovered more than 90 of Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn and P in samples applied to a borohydride-treated gel column (Sephadex G-50, Pharmacia Fine Chemicals, Piscataway, NJ). Recovery of Ca (Table IV) and Mg, Fe and Zn from ultrafiltration was also good. 

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry was the first non-destructive technique for analysing surfaces and produced some remarkable results. The Water Research Association, UK, has been investigating the application of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to solid samples. Some advantages of nondestructive methods are no risk of loss of elements during sample handling operations, the absence of contamination from reagents, etc. and the avoidance of capital outlay on expensive instruments and highly trained staff. 

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), a technique based on absorption and reflectance of monochromatographic radiation by samples over a wavelength range of 400-2500 run, has been successfully applied for food composition analysis, for food quality assessment, and in pharmaceutical production control. NIRS can be used to differentiate various samples via pattern recognitions. The technique is fast and nondestructive method that does not require sample preparation and is very simple to use compared too many other analytical methods such as HPLC. The drawback of NIRS, however, is that the instrument has to be calibrated using a set of samples typically 20-50 with known analyte concentrations obtained by suitable reference methods such as FIPLC in order to be used for quantitative analyses. Simultaneous quantification of the... 

C.K. Markopoulou, J.E. KoundoureUis, M.G. Orkoula, and C.G. Kontoyannis, Quantitative nondestructive methods for the determination of ticlopidine in tablets using reflectance near-infrared and Fourier hansform Raman spechoscopy, Appl. Spectrosc., 62, 251-257 (2008). 

Determining tablet hardness usually involves the destructive diametral crushing of each individnal tablet. However, Kirsch and Drennen developed a nondestructive method based on the slope of NIR spectra for intact tablets. Tablet hardness ranged from 1 to 7kp and was predicted with errors of 0.2-0.7kp by then-calibration models. Their approach, the robustness of which was confirmed by the resnlts, was claimed to surpass PCR calibration models in many respects as a result of its being unaffected by the absorption of individual bands. 

The metal also may be analyzed in solid matrices by nondestructive methods such as x-ray diffraction or x-ray fluorescence techniques. 

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