Brazil

Near the equator, Brazil belongs to Koppen Group Af and Am, north and south of the equator to Group Aw, in the southeast to Group Cfa, and in between to Group Cw. The highest temperatures in Brazil have been identified in Pau, Rio Grande do Norte, south of Fortaleza Four consecutive months (from September to December) show mean maximum temperatures above 34.0°C, and no mean minimum temperature below 23.7°C is found (see Fig. 4.4). 

As a consequence, the adequate temperature for long-term stability testing of medicinal products to be marketed in Brazil would be 30°C. That value includes a safety margin of 4% added to the highest MKT calculated for Brazil. 

The highest values for Pd are to be found near the Amazonas river, in particular on the Amazonas island Ilha Macuapanim west of Jau National Park, where the Pd values never decrease below 27.7 hPa and can go up to 32.5 hPa with a mean of 30.2 hPa (see Fig. 4.5). 

This island, however, is not populated in contrast to the other extreme places identified, such as 

All of these major cities, however, show a small but positive safety margin for the testing condition 30°C/70% RH. 

Lawsuits about advertising between competing pharmaceutical companies are commonplace in Brazil. The major issues covered by such lawsuits are comparative advertising, unfair competition, and infringement of trademark, patent and trade dress. 

Unfair competition is generally understood to mean any commercial act that is contrary to honest practice in industrial, commercial and trade matters. Complaints are also filed at Conar by competing pharmaceutical companies. The penalties imposed by Conar range from a mere warning to advertising suspension or change of advertisement. 

There is no visual or chemical distinction between the two different types of magnesite. Examination of the magnesite under an electron microscope reveals individual magnesite crystals in the 1- to 5-p.m range, with minor minerals present in the nodules being dolomite, quartz, clays, and iron and manganese oxides. 

Minor EDR occurs in the Winchester deposit, near Batchelor, Northwest Territories, and at Thuddungra, which is located 38 km northeast of Young, New South Wales. The Thuddungra deposit occurs as veins and nodules 

The FBNR concept is being developed mostly with own resources of the UFRGS. The development is currently at a design feasibility stage. An R D programme has been planned to include the completion of the conceptual design construction of a full size non-nuclear hydraulic facility and studies of neutronic, thermal-hydraulic, and fuel behaviour. 

The R D programme for the CHTR is being carried out at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) with financial support from the Government of India. At the time of this report (2006), the feasibility study for the CHTR has been completed and a conceptual design phase has started. This phase includes a set-up of experimental facilities to carry out various tests related to liquid metals, fuel element coatings, passive safety features, and heat removal systems. Pilot testing of fuel element coatings in liquid metal coolant has already started. 

Conceptual studies are mainly carried out by the Reactor Physics Laboratory of ITB, in cooperation with the National Atomic Energy Agency of Indonesia. The projects are funded under several national research grants. 

Several large industrial corporations, national research institutes and universities take a lead in the development of these innovative small reactors, in cooperation with other organizations. 

The development of the 4S Toshiba Design is supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in Japan. Currently the R D is focused on the core, fuel and reflector technologies. The conceptual design and major parts of the system design have been completed. A pre-application review by the US NRC is planned in the end 

Nosawa et al. (8) analyzed 45 patients who between 1997 and 1999 required LTV 10 days and had to undergo tracheostomy at the Hospital das Clinicas at the University of Sao Paulo. Of the 45 patients studied, 22 were weaned from mechanical ventilation within eight weeks and discharged from the ICU. Of the other 23 patients, 8 required longer-term ventilation and 15 died. The authors pointed out that patients receiving LTV consumed substantial resources. 

In May 2002, Vianna et al. (9) evaluated LTV in patients with a stay 30 days, in 77 ICUs in Rio de Janeiro, noting by telephone interview that 26 were publicly funded and 51 were in the private system. There were 645 patients of whom 62 (9.6%) met the criteria for prolonged stay. The main causes were pulmonary and neurological illness. Invasive ventilation was used in 93% of public and 79% of private units. Noninvasive ventilation was not registered in public units, but used in 12% of private patients. The authors noted that noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) in specialized respiratory units would reduce costs as well as length of stay in the ICU. A study conducted by nurses (10) in the ventilator-dependent pediatric population improved the process of family care during their ICU stay and when at home. 

Home mechanical ventilation (HMV) has been a reality in Brazil since 1994, although it is only available for people with private insurance (28% of the population). Public programs to help the low-income population receive HMV were started a few years 

The Brazilian health care system may he divided into two subsystems. The unified health system, which incorporates public providers, hospitals, and primary health centers, is associated with federal, state, and local governments. It also includes for-profit and not-for-profit providers under contract to the pubhc system. The second system, which is the supplementary medical system, includes the private plans with voluntary affiliation as well as prepaid health plans and insurance companies. 

Care for children who are dependent on technology requires consideration of societal and psychological factors. These include financial support, medicolegal discussions, ethical, social, and educational challenges, and communicating innovations in care. Some of these important issues are starting to he addressed. 

---

K.L. Feisle, D. Stegemam, S. Reimche, C. Reichert - IKPH, Uni. of Hannover, Germany. R. T. Lopes - COPPE, Brazil. 

The authors thank the german research community (DFG) for the support of the presented investigations whieh were realized inside the Special Research Area 326, named, J rocess Integrated Quality Control with Quality Information System for Metallic Parts in Mechanical Engineering, and special thanks to the scientific bilateral project between Brazil and Germany supported by the CNPq, KFA and DLR to realize the presented investigations in advanced radioscopy and tomography. 

E. Nesvijski, T. Nesvijski - Federal Uni. of Santa Maria, Brazil. 

Farley J M Total Quality in NDT Operations - The role of National NDT Societies , 13th World NDT Conference, San Paolo, Brazil, 1992... 

Most manganese today is obtained from ores found in Russia, Brazil, Australia, Republic of S. Africa, Gabon, and India. Pyrolusite and rhodochrosite are among the most common manganese minerals. The metal is obtained by reduction of the oxide with sodium, magnesium, aluminum, or by elctrolysis. 

The element is found in niobite (or columbite), niobite-tantalite, parochlore, and euxenite. Large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites (carbon-silicate rocks), as a constituent of parochlore. Extensive ore reserves are found in Canada, Brazil, Nigeria, Zaire, and in Russia. 

Tantalum ores are found in Australia, Brazil, Mozambique, Thailand, Portugal, Nigeria, Zaire, and Canada. 

Large deposits of monazite (found on the beaches of Travancore, India and in river sands in Brazil), ahanite (in the western United States), and bastnasite (in Southern California) will supply cerium, thorium, and the other rare-earth metals for many years to come. 

Dedicated Vehicles. Only Brazil and California have continued implementing alcohols in the transportation sector. The BraziUan program, the largest alternative fuel program in the world, used about 7.5% of oil equivalent of ethanol in 1987 (equivalent to 150,000 bbl of cmde oil per day). In 1987 about 4 million vehicles operated on 100% ethanol and 94% of all new vehicles purchased that year were ethanol-fueled. About 25% of Brazil s light-duty vehicle fleet (10) operate on alcohol. The leading BraziUan OEMs are Autolatina (a joint venture of Volkswagen and Ford), GM, and Fiat. Vehicles are manufactured and marketed in Brazil. 

S. C. Trindade and A. V. de Carvalho, "Utilization of Alcohol Euels in Brazil Early Experience, Current Situation, and Euture Prospects," Int. 

W. Bandel and L. M. Ventura, "Problems ia Adapting Ethanol Puels to the Requirements of Diesel Engines," 4th Int. Sjmp. on yllcoholFuels (Guamja, Brazil, Oct. 1980). 

A. V. de Carvalho, "Puture Scenarios of Alcohols as Puels ia Brazil," 5rd Int. Sjmp. onyilcoholFuels Technology (Asilomar, Calif., May 29—31,1979). 

The world s largest producers are Perstorp AB (Sweden, United States, Italy), Hoechst Celanese Corporation (United States, Canada), Degussa (Germany), and Hercules (United States) with estimated 1989 plant capacities of 65,000, 59,000, 30,000, and 22,000 t/yr, respectively. Worldwide capacity for pentaerythritol production was 316,000 t in 1989, about half of which was from the big four companies. Most of the remainder was produced in Asia (Japan, China, India, Korea, and Taiwan), Europe (Italy, Spain), or South America (Brazil, Chile). The estimated rate of production for 1989 was about 253,000 t or about 80% of nameplate capacity. 

Direct Application Rock. Finely ground phosphate rock has had limited use as a direct-appHcation fertilizer for many years. There have been widely varying results. Direct appHcation of phosphate rock worldwide amounts to about 8% of total fertilizer phosphate used, primarily in the former Soviet Union, France, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The agronomic effectiveness of an apatitic rock depends not only on the fineness of the grind but also strongly on the innate reactivity of the rock and the acidity of the sod performance is better on more acid sods. Probably more than half of the potentially productive tropical sods are acidic, some with pH as low as 3.5—4.5. Certain phosphate rocks may thus become increasingly important as fertilizer in those areas. The International Fertilizer Development Center at Muscle Shoals, Alabama is active in researching this field (30). 

Bilhons of metric tons of phosphate rock also are present offshore in the oceans, eg, best estimates are that a biUion tons of pellets that may contain about 30% P2 5 present in a Baja California—Mexico deposit alone. Other areas in the world that contain large, unevaluated amounts of phosphate include AustraUa, Alaska, Africa, the Near East, Pern, Colombia, Brazil, the People s RepubHc of China, MongoHa, and the former Soviet Union. 

United States, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela. 

Urena and Abutilon. These are less important vegetable fibers of a jute-like nature. Urena lobata (Cadillo) of the mallow family (Malvaceae) is a perennial that grows in Zaire and Brazil to a height of 4—5 m with stems 10—18 mm in diameter. Because of a lignified base, the stems are cut 20 cm above the ground. The plants are defoflated in the field and retted similarly to jute and kenaf. The retted material is stripped and washed and, in some cases. 

Mauritius. Mauritius hemp, also called piteina, is obtaiaed from the Furcraeagigantea also a member of the Agavaceae. The plant is mostly grown on the island of Mauritius, but is also harvested ia Brazil and other tropical countries. The leaves are longer and heavier than those of the agaves. 

Countries with a negative Hst system, eg, AustraUa, Brazil, Canada, Chile, India, New Zealand, and Singapore, define flavoring substances that cannot be used or may only be used in very limited and strictly defined ways. Ak materials not on such fists may be used without limitation. This system works wek with ak natural and nature identical flavor materials, but it is not good for controlling the use of new artificial materials. Any new flavor material created wik not be specificaky fisted, and can theoreticaky be used. 

Human activity, particularly in the developing world, continues to make it more difficult to sustain the world s biomass growth areas. It has been estimated that tropical forests are disappearing at a rate of tens of thousands of hm per year. Satellite imaging and field surveys show that Brazil alone has a deforestation rate of approximately 8 x 10 hm /yr (5). At a mean net carbon yield for tropical rain forests of 9.90 t/hm yr (4) (4.42 short ton /acreyr), this rate of deforestation corresponds to a loss of 79.2 x 10 t/yr of net biomass carbon productivity. 

Coal, tar, and heavy oil fuel reserves are widely distributed throughout the world. In the Western hemisphere, Canada has large tar sand, bitumen (very heavy cmde oil), and coal deposits. The United States has very large reserves of coal and shale. Coal comprises ca 85% of the U.S. recoverable fossil energy reserves (6). Venezuela has an enormous bitumen deposit and Brazil has significant oil shale (qv) reserves. Coal is also found in Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Pern. Worldwide, the total resource base of these reserves is immense and may constitute >90% of the hydrocarbon resources in place (see... 

Starting in the city of Sao Paulo in 1977, and extending to the entire state of Sao Paulo in 1978, a gasohol incorporating 20% ethanol was mandated. Brazil s National Alcohol Program (Proalcool) set an initial goal of providing the 20% fuel mixture nationwide by 1980—1981 and a system of special tax, warranty, and price considerations were enacted to advance the aims of Proalcool. 

Eor a considerable period, >90% of the new cars in Brazil operated on E96 fuel, or a mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water (82). The engines have high compression ratios (ca 12 1) to utilize the high knock resistance of ethanol and deUver optimum fuel economy. In 1989 more than one-third of Brazil s 10 million automobiles operated on 96% ethanol/4% water fuel. The remainder ran on gasoline blends containing up to 20% ethanol (5). 

The Texaco process was first utilized for the production of ammonia synthesis gas from natural gas and oxygen. It was later (1957) appHed to the partial oxidation of heavy fuel oils. This appHcation has had the widest use because it has made possible the production of ammonia and methanol synthesis gases, as well as pure hydrogen, at locations where the lighter hydrocarbons have been unavailable or expensive such as in Maine, Puerto Rico, Brazil, Norway, and Japan. 

---