Sectors transportation

Emissions of CO in the United States peaked in the late 1960s, but have decreased consistendy since that time as transportation sector emissions significandy decreased. Between 1968 and 1983, CO emissions from new passenger cars were reduced by 96% (see Exhaust CONTUOL, automotive). This has been partially offset by an increase in the number of vehicle-miles traveled annually. Even so, there has been a steady decline in the CO concentrations across the United States and the decline is expected to continue until the late 1990s without the implementation of any additional emissions-reduction measures. In 1989, there were still 41 U.S. urban areas that exceeded the CO NAAQS on one or mote days per year, but the number of exceedances declined by about 80% from 1980 to 1989. Over the same time period, nationwide CO emissions decreased 23%, and ambient concentrations declined by 25% (4). 

The benefits of alcohol fuels include increased energy diversification in the transportation sector, accompanied by some energy security and balance of payments benefits, and potential air quaUty improvements as a result of the reduced emissions of photochemically reactive products (see Air POLLUTION). The Clean Air Act of 1990 and emission standards set out by the State of California may serve to encourage the substantial use of alcohol fuels, unless gasoline and diesel technologies can be developed that offer comparable advantages. 

Dedicated Vehicles. Only Brazil and California have continued implementing alcohols in the transportation sector. The BraziUan program, the largest alternative fuel program in the world, used about 7.5% of oil equivalent of ethanol in 1987 (equivalent to 150,000 bbl of cmde oil per day). In 1987 about 4 million vehicles operated on 100% ethanol and 94% of all new vehicles purchased that year were ethanol-fueled. About 25% of Brazil s light-duty vehicle fleet (10) operate on alcohol. The leading BraziUan OEMs are Autolatina (a joint venture of Volkswagen and Ford), GM, and Fiat. Vehicles are manufactured and marketed in Brazil. 

Office of Pohcy, Planning, and Analysis, Assessment of Costs and Benefits ofElexible and Alternative Euel Use in the U.S. Transportation Sector, Technical Report 3 (Methanol Production and Transportation Costs) Pub. DOE/P/E—0093, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., Nov. 

M. A. DeLuchi, E. D. Laison, and R. H. WiUiams, Hjdrogen andMethanol Production and Use in Fuel Cell andintemal Combustion Engine Vehicles—-A preliminary Assessment, Vol. 12, Solid Fuel Conversion for the Transportation Sector, ASME, Fuels and Combustion Technologies Division, New York, 1991, pp. 55-70. 

When discussing material outputs of the petroleum refining industry, it is important to note the relationship between the outputs of the industry itself and the outputs resulting from the use of refmery products. Petroleum refineries play an important role in the U.S. economy, supplying approximately 40% of the total energy used in the U.S. and virtually all of the energy consumed in the transportation sector. 

The pollutant ouqiuts from the refining facilities, however, are modest in comparison to the pollutant outputs realized from the consumption of petroleum products by the transportation sector, electric utilities, chemical manufacturers, and other industrial and commercial users. 

In a data collection system that was developed in the transportation sector, the application of these principles generated the following format for a data collection form ... 

Consumption in the transportation sector historically has been less than either the industrial sector or the residential and commercial sector, but it is of greater concern because consumption is almost entirely petroleum as opposed to a mix of petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. And because electricity can be generated from a number of different sources, and because there is greater opportunity to substitute one source of energy for another in generating electricity, the price and supply security that exists in other sectors does not apply to the transportation sector. 

Transportation is also the emissions leader. About 75 percent of carbon dioxide emissions and 45 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions come from the transportation sector. If rising levels of CO, are found to be responsible for global warming, and measures are put in place to severely curtail CO, emissions, the measures will have the greatest impact on the transportation sector. 

Eor specific applications, we can calculate the ratio of the measure of the goods or sendees provided to the energy input required. For example, in the transportation sector, energy efficiency is based on miles per gallon for personal vehicles, seat-miles per gallon for mass transit, and ton-miles per gallon for freight transportation. 

The transportation sector is a major polluter of the environment. In 1994 there were 156.8 million noncommercial vehicles on the road, averaging 19.8 miles per gallon, traveling an average of 11,400 miles, and burning an average of 578 gallons of fuel annually per vehicle. The trend has been one of more vehicles more miles driven, and more roads demanded by drivers. 

Because eveiy means of transportation requires energy for propulsion, how energy is used in transportation is something that is carefully tracked by the Office of Transportation Policy Development within the Department of Transportation (DOT). The transportation sector felt the greatest impact from the oil supply disruptions in the 1970s because it was, and continues to be, the sector most dependent on oil. It is also the sector with the least flexibility to switch fuels, (see also Consumption)... 

Unlike the gasoline tax that only impacts the transportation sector, carbon taxes affect all sectors of the economy. Implemented by some European countries and proposed in the United States by the Clinton Administration in 1993, the carbon tax makes consumption of fossil fuels more expensive for the energy user. The goals of a carbon tax are to reduce the consumption of energy and to make non-carbon emitting sources like wind and hydroelectric more cost-competitive with fossil fuels. 

There are many barriers to innovation in the transportation sector. Large corporations dominate the... 

Sion in energy-intensive industry, such as China and India, show relatively unchanging shares of industrial energy use. In other countries, such as Thailand and Mexico, the share and/or growth of the transportation sector dominate. Many smaller countries have remained primarily agrarian societies with modest manufacturing infrastructure. 

In the end, both approaches require the calcination of limestone to lime. The energy penalty in this process is about 4.5-5 GJ/ton of C02, which amounts to a 30-40% energy penalty of a transportation sector that uses air extraction for managing its own C02 emissions. This is comparable to the energy penalty incurred in the conversion of fossil fuels into hydrogen as a transportation fuel (Zeman and Lackner, 2004). 

The scope is briefly outlined of Chemmate 3.1 from Atrion International, which integrates environmental modules obtained through the company s acquisition of Chemtox and Environmental Software Associates. The software system, which is directed to the environmental, health, safety and transportation sector is claimed to be the first commercially available end-to-end regulatory compliance management solution. 

At the heart of the book stands the question of how the growing energy demand in the transport sector can be met in the long term, when conventional (easy) oil will be running out. Among the principal options are unconventional oil from oil sands or oil shale, synthetic Fischer-Tropsch fuels on the basis of gas or coal, biofuels,... 

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