Perceptions

Policy formulation, label design and evaulation of label effectiveness are all directly related to the psychological process of perception. Perception (an element of the process of cognition) involves the use of the senses either to (1) obtain information about the events, situations and states of our environment, or (2) to maintain contact with the real world and its constituent parts and states. The first part of the description deals with the active relations of people with the empiric world, while the second part covers the more or less automatic perceptual acts of people in their daily lives. 

Labels are objects in our world, and we obtain information about labels and from labels via our senses, particularly but not limited to our visual sense. The percept of the label is the data we obtain from the process of perception as applied to the label the meaningful individual experience resulting from sensory stimulation caused by the label. 

Industry leaders believe that PI would typically provide the following benefits  

a 99% reduction in impurity amount in the final product, resulting in a significantly more valuable product, 

a 70-l-% reduction in energy usage and hence considerable reduction in operating cost, 

a 93% first-time yield (per pass yield), leading to reduction in downstream processing and less material to recycle back to the reactor, 

a 99% reduction in reactor volume, leading to inherently safer operation, reduced capital cost, and also less storage of inventory. 

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Perception and Entropy Inspired Ultrasonic Grain Noise Suppression, Using Noncoherent Detector Statistics. 

In statistical terms, a perceptual improvement is therefore obtained if the amplitude distribution in the filtered signal (image) is more concentrated around zero than in the raw data (contrast enhancement). A more concentrated amplitude distribution generally means smaller entropy. Thus, from an operator perception point of view, interesting results should be obtained if the raw data can be filtered to yield low entropy amplitude distributions. However, one should note that the entropy can be minimized by means of a (pathological) filter which always outputs zero or another constant value. Thus, appropriate restrictions must be imposed on the filter construction process. 

Filters that output noncoherent detector statistics have, in our recent work [1], shown to be very powerful for grain noise suppression in ultrasonics. However, such filters require the operator to carefully specify a transient prototype as a model of the defect echoes which should be detected. Here a new approach is presented, based on the above ideas about perception, which eliminates the need for the operator to manually specify a defect prototype. 

The importance of distinct a priori knowledge account becomes more perceptible if noisy data are under restoration. The noise / ( shifts the solution of (1) from the Maximum Likelihood (ML) to the so called Default Model for which the function of the image constraint becomes more significant. 

By interpretation of the images obtained, one can check whether the digital radiograms can be compared to eonventional ones. To determine the detail perceptibility of this imaging system, an object with preliminary known geometry and with different levels of object contrast can be used. Exposures of such an object, under controlled conditions, enable the viewer to decide... 

To evaluate the performance of digitization, we compared conventional procedure and digital processing by the mean of a specimen made of steel and composed of various electro-eroded slots (figure 1). The obtained perceptibility is dependent on both the width and the depth of the slots. 

This relation is only valid for small Ad and small lateral extensions. The influence of the inherent unsharpness is not taken into consideration and besides this the ability of the human eye to integrate over an area for noise reduction is not considered, which would have positive effects on the perception oflarge or longish flaws (or wires). 

The smallest thickness difference of steel which could be perceptible at such a level of noise then amounts to ... 

Flaws under this dimension will be under the critical signal-to-noise ratio of 2 1 for a given film system class and for instance for the borderline film of class C5 a flaw must be already -21 % deeper for perception than for the film of class C4. 

Relation 2 allows also to estimate how much deeper a flaw has to be for perception if the granularity increases about 20% as in a mixed system. Neglecting a decrease of the gradient the limiting depth of a flaw would also increase for about 20%, i. e. an increase of 30 pm to 94 pm in this example. 

Even if no perceptible motion occurs (see later, however), application of a force leads to microdisplacements of one surface relative to the other and, again, often a large increase in area of contact. The ratio F/W in such an experiment will be called since it does not correspond to either the usual ns or can be related semiempirically to the area change, as follows [38]. We assume that for two solids pressed against each other at rest the area of contact Aq is given by Eq. XII-1, A W/P. However, if shear as well as normal stress is present, then a more general relation for threshold plastic flow is... 

To date, researchers have identified more than 100 different molecules, composed of up to 13 atoms, in the interstellar medium [16]. Most were initially detected at microwave and (sub)millimetre frequencies, and the discoveries have reached far beyond the mere existence of molecules. Newly discovered entities such as difhise mterstellar clouds, dense (or dark) molecular clouds and giant molecular cloud complexes were characterized for the first time. Indeed, radioastronomy (which includes observations ranging from radio to submillunetre frequencies) has dramatically changed our perception of the composition of the universe. Radioastronomy has shown that most of the mass in the interstellar medium is contained in so-called dense... 

The local dynamics of tire systems considered tluis far has been eitlier steady or oscillatory. However, we may consider reaction-diffusion media where tire local reaction rates give rise to chaotic temporal behaviour of tire sort discussed earlier. Diffusional coupling of such local chaotic elements can lead to new types of spatio-temporal periodic and chaotic states. It is possible to find phase-synchronized states in such systems where tire amplitude varies chaotically from site to site in tire medium whilst a suitably defined phase is synclironized tliroughout tire medium 51. Such phase synclironization may play a role in layered neural networks and perceptive processes in mammals. Somewhat suriDrisingly, even when tire local dynamics is chaotic, tire system may support spiral waves... 

SMILES simplest linear code easy to learn fast data exchange formal supports Markush, slcrcochcmistiy, and reaction coding unambiguous not unique (except Unique SMfl FS) some problems with aromaticity perception... 

In this section only three of the various ring perception algorithms are introduced. The initial approaches are ... 

Conversion in both directions needs heuristic information about conjugation. It would therefore be more sensible to input molecules directly into the RAMSES notation. Ultimately, we hope that the chemist s perception of bonding will abandon the connection table representation of a single VB structure and switch to one accounting for the problems addressed in this section in a manner such as that laid down in the RAMSES model. 

Ring perception and equivalence of atoms and bonds are also very important tasks in for processing chemical compounds. 

Let us define knowledge as the perception of the logical relations among the structures of the information. One thing we have to bear in mind is that any systematic treatment of information needs some previous knowledge. Therefore, research, in the long run, is always an iterative process, as depicted on Figure 4-1. 

The search for structural fragments (substructures) is very important in medicinal chemistry, QSAR, spectroscopy, and many other fields in the process of perception of pharmacophore, chromophore, or other -phores. 

Any development of chemical structure perception methods must obey the following requirements ... 

The problem of perception complete structures is related to the problem of their representation, for which the basic requirements are to represent as much as possible the functionality of the structure, to be unique, and to allow the restoration of the structure. Various approaches have been devised to this end. They comprise the use of molecular formulas, molecular weights, trade and/or trivial names, various line notations, registry numbers, constitutional diagrams 2D representations), atom coordinates (2D or 3D representations), topological indices, hash codes, and others (see Chapter 2). 

SONNIA can be employed for the classification and clustering of objects, the projection of data from high-dimensional spaces into two-dimensional planes, the perception of similarities, the modeling and prediction of complex relationships, and the subsequent visualization of the underlying data such as chemical structures or reactions which greatly facilitates the investigation of chemical data. 

A Kohonen network is a neural network which uses an unsupervised learning strategy. It can be used for, e.g, similarity perception, clustering, or classification tasks. 

The main characteristics of the method, developed in our group for reaction classification arc 1) the representation of a reaction by physicochemical values calculated for the bonds being broken and made during the reaction, and 2 use of the unsupervised learning method of a self-organi2ing neural network for the perception of similarity of chemical reactions [3, 4],... 

Only then can the full arsenal of processing reaction information, such as reaction center searching, reaction similarity perception, or reaction classification (see Section 3.5) be invoked. Figure 10.3-19 shows such a full-fledged reaction represen tation. 

Flexible 3D alignment of a set of ligands binding to the same target and/or CoMFA analysis allowing the perception of a pharmacophore for this target. 

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