Sensory stimulation

The findings recently reported can be relevant to understand the functional role of transmitter release from astrocytes in brain function. Interestingly, a recent report shows for the first time the occurrence in vivo of fast astrocytic calcium events in response to neuronal activity, peaking with millisecond time-scale from sensory stimulation (Winship et al. 2007). 

These are normally based on the use of either electrical stimulation or chemical convulsants. When applied generally, i.e. an electric shock to the whole brain or convulsants injected systemically, the resulting convulsions are indicative of generalised seizures. If they are applied locally to specific brain areas, the same approaches induce activity indicative of partial seizures. Also some animals can be bred in which seizures either occur spontaneously or can be induced easily by appropriate sensory stimulation. 

Various animals show spontaneous epilepsy or seizures that can be readily induced by sensory stimulation (see Jobe et al. 1991). Tottering mice display seizures that resemble absence attacks behaviourally, in their EEG pattern and response to drugs. DBA/2 mice show reflex seizures to audiogenic stimuli while photically-induced seizures can be obtained in the Senegalese baboon, Papiopapio, which are similar to generalised tonic-clonic epilepsy. 

It is most probable that sleep and waking stem from an inherent cycle of neuronal activity that can be influenced dramatically by changes in sensory stimulation. This is demonstrable not only in humans and laboratory animals, but also in invertebrates. Thus, while we cannot be sure that other animals sleep in the same way that we do, they do show a circadian cycle of motor activity. In some (nocturnal) species, such as the rat, this activity is actually highest during darkness. Even aplysia, the sea hare, has such a rhythm but this is more like that of humans in being maximally active during daylight (diurnal). 

The ocular surface and the tear-secreting glands of the eye are now known to function as an integrated unit. This unit refreshes the tear supply and clears used tears. An autonomic neural reflex loop stimulates secretion of tear fluid and proteins by the lacrimal glands. The sensitivity of the ocular surface decreases as aqueous tear production and tear clearance decreases. This results in a decrease in sensory-stimulated reflex tearing which exacerbates dry eye.29,30 Over time, wearing contact lenses also desensitizes the cornea by constant stimulation.12... 

It is known that sensory stimulations in skin, eye, or nose are induced in workers who handle pyrethroids. Itching and burning sensations, paresthesia, blisters, nasal hypersecretion, sneezing, coughing, dyspnoea, and irritation were reported as... 

Cargen SZ, Malley LA, Parker CM et al (1984) Pyrethroid-mediated skin sensory stimulation characterized by new behavioral paradigm. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 76 270-279... 

Since the early 90s, noninvasive functional brain imaging of humans using NIR methods have been slowly gaining momentum despite existence of more established imaging modailties, such as PET, fMRI, and EEG. Part of the reason as stated previously, is because of its relatively high temporal resolution and its ability to monitor multiple tissue chromophores. The technique has been applied to adult as well as infant studies. NIR method is particularly suited for infant studies as the equipment, at least the CW kind, are minimally restraining, relatively safe, and portable [67]. Most neonatal studies focus on sensory stimulation such as visual, auditory and olfactory stimulations [69] [101] [89] [115] [6] [5], and cerebral disfunction [70, 71]. Our review will focus primarily on adult studies with some emphasis on defense and security applications. 

Adult subject studies can be divided into two broad categories response to basic sensory stimulation and response to more complex cognitive tasks. Recently, there have also been reports applying the NIR spectroscopy to brain computer interface research [18] and studyinh the correlation of hemodynamic response to computational cognitive models [94]. 

Acquas E, Wilson C, Fibiger HC. 1998. Pharmacology of sensory stimulation-evoked increases in frontal cortical acetylcholine release. Neuroscience 85(1) 73-83. 

Vince, M. A. and Billing, A. E. (1986). Infancy in the sheep the part played by sensory stimulation in bonding between ewe and lamb. In Advances in Infancy Research, vol. IV, ed. L. P. Lipsittand C. Rovee-Collies, pp. 1-37. Norwood, NJ Ablex. 

Fos-like immunoreactivity in the MPOA and lateral preoptic area (LPOA) is associated with maternal behavior in both virgin female rats exposed to pups and lactating postpartum females (Numan and Numan, 1992). The observed induction of fos activity in the POA is likely partially due to the receipt of olfactory and ventral tactile and suckling-related sensory stimulation from pups. The POA also receives suckling-related sensory data related to lactation. However, because maternal behavior occurs in females who have been thelectomized (nipple removal) or olfactory bul-bectomized, a population of POA output cells exists that is essential for the performance of maternal duties in the absence of the usual sensory inputs (Numan, 1994). 

Wilson CL, Babb TL, Halgren E, et al Habituation of human limbic neuronal response to sensory stimulation. Exp Neurol 84 74-97, 1984 Wilson K Sex-related differences in drug disposition in man. Clin Pharmacokinet 9 189-202, 1984... 

U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of insomnia, almost all benzodiazepines may be used for this purpose. Benzodiazepines are most clearly valuable as hypnotics in the hospital setting, where high levels of sensory stimulation, pain, and acute stress may interfere with sleep. The safe, effective, and time-limited use of benzodiazepine hypnotics may, in fact, prevent chronic sleep difficulties (NIMH/NIH Consensus Development Conference Statement 1985). Benzodiazepines are also used to treat akathisia and catatonia and as adjuncts in the treatment of acute mania. 

Ogawa, S., Tank, D.W., Menon, R., et al. Intrinsic signal changes accompanying sensory stimulation functional brain mapping with magnetic resonance imaging Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89. 5951-5955. 1992. 

Elicitation of sweetness is explained by the AH—B—X Theory, or the Sweetness Triangle (1,23,24), wherein AH and B represent a hydrogen donor and acceptor, respectively, of sucrose. These interact with complementary regions of taste-receptor proteins. An extended hydrophobic region (X) of sucrose docks in a hydrophobic cleft of the receptor, facilitating optimal electrostatic interaction and sensory stimulation. The C2- and C3-hydroxyls of glucose (AH and B, respectively) and the back side of the fmctose ring (X) are critical to this interaction (1). 

Hunt, S P., Pim, A, and Evan, G. I (1987) Induction of c /as-like protein in spinal cord neurons following sensory stimulation Nature (Lond) 328, 632-634. 

Frederickson CJ, Madansky DL, Rechtschaffen A. Sensory stimulation and subsequent sleep. Cornmun Behav Biol 1969 4 109-113. 

What will the facility look like—interior, exterior, decor, signage, lighting, etc. How will the employees be presented Appearances, including those of employees, serve to shape first impressions, particularly if little is known about the service convey trust (particularly if the consumer has no other way to judge quality) convey an image and provide sensory stimulation to make the experience memorable. 

McKercher and Bauer (2003) highlight the relatively obvious point that tourism and travel can create new opportunities for sexual relationships. Factors such as anonymity, sensory stimulation, time, levels of affluence,... 

Ultimately, the ability of a packaging material to protect food quality depends not on whether an interaction has occurred but on whether or not a consumer can detect that interaction. The repeat purchase of a packaged food product is contingent on many factors, with enjoyment and positive sensory stimulation being among the most important (Kilcast, 1996). Consumer expectations associated with sensory characteristics and... 

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