Electronic equipment pollution

For this purpose, the WEEE Directive has been complemented with an additional directive that limits the use of certain pollutants in these products. The EC Directive 2002/95/EC on the Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment (RoHS Directive) ([7], recast 2011 [9]) restricts the use of the six harmful substances/substance families lead, mercury, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) to 0.1% and cadmium to 0.01% w/w per homogenous material in equipment and components, but with several exemptions for a wide range of applications (Annex III and IV). 

Based on the values of Cpcdd/fs [46], Ccipahs [38], and CBfrs in e-waste, the annual mass emissions of selected PCDD/F and C1PAH congeners and BFRs from e-waste are estimated (Table 3). The lowest annual mass emission of PBDEs is about 82,207 tons/year, with 70,607 tons/year from importation and 11,600 tons/ year from domestic generation (Table 3). Nona- and deca-BDEs are the most important congeners as they are the major constituents of BRFs in electronic equipment [77]. In addition, the annual mass emissions of PBBs, TBBPA, and PBPs are also estimated with the same procedure (Table 3). Obviously, importation is responsible for the majority of annual mass emissions of e-waste-derived organic pollutants in China (Table 3). 

Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal and 69 ratified the ban on all kinds of hazardous waste export from wealthy OECD-countries to non-OECD countries, large amounts of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are shipped overseas for recycling, the majority to China as reported by Brigden et al. [2] and Puckett et al. [3], lesser quantities to India and Western Africa reported by Kuper and Hojsik [4]. WEEE contains a variety of harmful substances like endocrine disruptors and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Additionally, hazardous substances may be formed during informal recycling. This often practised informal treatment without proper equipment for metal extraction and labour safety heavily affects the environment and human health of workers and the inhabitants of whole stretches of land. 

Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the use of spontaneous chemical reactions to produce electricity and the use of electricity to drive nonspontaneous reactions forward. Electrochemical techniques—procedures based on electrochemistry—allow us to use electronic equipment to monitor concentrations of ions in solution. We can use them to monitor the composition and pH of solutions and to determine the pKa of acids. Electrochemistry even allows us to monitor the activity of our brain and heart (perhaps while we are trying to master chemistry), the pH of our blood, and the presence of pollutants in our water supply. 

PBDEs have been called one of the emerging pollutants . They are extensively used as flame retardants (FRs) in various polymers and especially in electronic equipment such as computers and television sets. Similar to PCBs, there are 209 congeners of PBDEs, and the nomenclature system is also based on the same IUPAC scheme used for PCBs. But unlike PCBs, for which large-scale production has been banned for many years, PBDEs are still widely used and their transport and transformation in the environment are still poorly understood. The global demand for PBDEs has increased rapidly since the 1970s. In 1992, the global production of PBDEs was 40,0001, but in 1999 this had increased to approximately 70,0001 (Renner, 2000). 

There are two allotropes of oxygen—O2, the most common, and O3, called ozone. Ozone is a highly unstable and reactive gas that is considered a pollutant in the lower atmosphere. However, in the upper atmosphere, ozone protects Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ozone is responsible for the pungent odor you may notice during thimder and lightning storms or while operating your computer or other electronic equipment. 

The widespread use of metals for different kinds of application (e.g., pigments, coatings, alloys, electronic equipment) leads to the fact that some of the utilized metals (or their compounds) end up in wastes. Metals in wastes can cause severe environmental impacts, particularly with respect to ground-water pollution. 

Abstract This chapter introduces the European Union (EU) and discusses some of its directives and regulations. Today the EU has some of the most progressive environmental policies in the world that extend to all areas of environmental protection. Some of these areas are air pollution control, water protection, waste management, and the control of chemicals. This chapter includes information about the End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELV), the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS), and the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE). The EU regulation called Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) is described too. 

Differences of opinion have existed for decades with respect to the mixture of corrosive gases that should be used in test chambers. For air-conditioned electronic equipment rooms in urban environments that are well removed from industrial pollution (Class II Battelle environment, G1 IBM environment, and lEC Class II environment), the appropriate Battelle accelerated life test calls for use of 200 ppb NO2, 10 ppb H2S, and 10 ppb CI2 at an RH of 70 %. This test does an excellent job of simulating corrosion films on silver, copper, tin, and some gold-plated metals, but has been criticized in recent years because the Aims it produces on nickel are unrealistic. 

Antimony and its compounds are listed among the most toxic elements of priority pollutants by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Antimony exists in several industrial and mining wastes, such as chemical and allied products, glass products, electrical and electronic equipment, lead acid storage batteries, and copper electrorefining solutions. 

Most newer plants and facilities contain control rooms, electric motor control centers, instrument control rooms, and computer centers. These are usually maintained under a slight positive pressure with makeup air being introduced from the outside. In many instances it is possible for this air to be contaminated with atmospheric pollutants such as sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride, chlorides, hydrogen sulfide, dust, and others. These gases and dust can cause serious damage to sensitive circuitry found in computers, microprocessors, microswitches, and other delicate electronic equipment. If corrosive gases are removed from these makeup streams, costly maintenance and downtime will be prevented. 

The concept of producer responsibility is now an accepted part of the UK waste management process. Basically, it is an extended version of the polluter pays principle, placing responsibility for the environmental impact of a product onto tire producer of the product. The intention is to prevent pollution, reduce use of energy and other resources throughout the life cycle of the product by better design and production. It encourages all stakeholders involved in the production and sale of products to ensure that products are recovered and recycled at the end of their life. Initially in 1997, producer responsibility was applied to packaging but has since been extended to other areas such as waste electrical and electronic equipment, batteries, vehicles and tyres. 

Environmental laws regulating the disposal of hazardous chemical waste may also be informed by the LCA concept. The Waste in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive in the European Union is closely linked to the RoHS directive restricting the use of specific chemicals in electrical products. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in the United States complanents other environmental laws that regulate toxic chemicals by regulating the disposal of the hazardous chemical by-products of industrial processes. A significant difference between RCRA and WEEE is that WEEE is linked to pollution prevention laws such as RoHS, while RCRA is more of an end of the pipe law. 

In addition to challenging the capacity of landfills, this trend continues to deplete our resources and increase environmental pollution. The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directives, introduced by the European Union, are intended to protect human health and the environment. 

Reuse and recycling electronic equipment is a beneficial alternative to disposal. An additional benefit is the reduced amount of hazardous and toxic substances entering the incineration and landfill disposal systems. Reuse serves to extend product life, thereby conserving the energy and raw materials required for new products, while avoiding the pollution and contamination associated with the energy utilization and processes to manufacture them [5j. 

Medical uses for Udel resin include surgical trays, nebulizers, flow controllers for blood, and respiration regulators. Transportation applications center around automotive fuse housings, electrical connectors, and switches. Electrical and electronic end uses include coil bobbins, housings, connectors, bushings, capacitor film, and business machine parts. EinaHy, water, heater dip tubes, milking machine parts, pollution control equipment, and some filtration membranes are made. 

The main aims of this chapter are to provide estimates for the amounts of pollutants emitted from processed electronic waste (e-waste) and assess the magnitudes of human exposure to these pollutants. Specifically in this chapter, e-waste is defined as the sum of discarded personal computers, electronic/electrical equipment, electronic entertainment devices, cell phones, television sets, and refrigerators. In another word, e-waste explicitly refers to electronics at their end of life cycle and disposed by end users rather than surplus electronics (brand new products). In addition, e-waste also does not include reusable (e.g., repairable electronics or second hand electronics) and secondary scraps (e.g., noble metals, plastics, and rubbers). 

A third mechanism by which the structural bonds between Fe atoms in iron oxides may be weakened involves reduction of structural Fe to Fe". In natural environments, reductive dissolution is by far the most important dissolution mechanism. It is mediated both biotically and abiotically. The most important electron donors, particularly in near surface ecosystems result from metabolic oxidation of organic compounds under O2 deficient conditions. In anaerobic systems, therefore, the availability of Fe oxides i. e. the electron sink, may control the degradation of dead biomass and organic pollutants in the ground water zone (see chap. 21). Reductive dissolution is also often applied to the removal of corrosion products from piping in industrial equipment and the bleaching of kaolin. 

Indoor air quality is an important determinant of health and well-being. To maintain better indoor air quality, we have to understand the mechanism of indoor air pollution. For this purpose, the measurement of indoor air concentration and use of chemical analysis methods are essential. To estimate indoor air concentration, we have to know the emission and ventilation rates. Emission takes place not only from building products but also from automobile parts, electric appliances, office equipment such as printers, household consumer products, and even printed materials like newspapers. This book serves as a useful guide for chemists, architects, mechanical engineers, constructors, and manufacturers of electronic products. It emphasizes a holistic and multidisciplinary approach toward the indoor environment. 

The compounds are representatives for different types of pollutants. 11 halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons are determined using capillary GC equipped with electron capture detector. The remaining pollutants, representing both basic/neutral and acidic compounds are determined using GC/MS combined with an automated search computer program. 

The electronic unit Is completed by recording equipment which can be from a muiti-channel recorder to up to four dual-line recorders. Data transmission is achieved by mounting the appropriate equipment In the recorder section. It Is also possible to mount a microcomputer-based pollution data reductor. 

In addition to the fiber sensors, there have been numerous reports on remote fiberless optical detection of pollution from stationary sources. Mobile remote sensors can have cost advantages over on-site instruments and also are much more versatile. Pollutants in smokestack emissions have been identified by irradiation with a laser from a mobile unit equipped with a telescope, a monochromator, and low-noise detection electronics. The gases and particles in the plume scatter the laser light in various directions. A fraction is scattered back to the receiver and analysed to detect the amount and type of gas in the plume. Many of these methods await their application to fiber-optic sensing schemes which are inherently safer than direct laser spectroscopic schemes. 

Adhesive failure Is a problem In solar systems. In the past, polymers have been used to protect the mechanical Integrity of wood and metal structures In severe outdoor environments and to protect sensitive electronic components In relatively benign enclosed environments. Polymers used In solar equipment will have to protect the optical properties of reflectors, thln-fllm electrical conductors, and thln-fllm photovoltalcs from the effects of moisture and atmospheric pollutants In severe outdoor environments while simultaneously maintaining optical, mechanical, and chemical Integrity. In some systems, the prevention of mechanical failure Is Important frequently, adhesive failure at the metal/polymer Interface Is of particular concern because the ensuing corrosion causes optical failure. 

One of the provisions of the 1970 Qean Air Act initiated the requirement for air pollution sources to obtain a permit for construction of the source and a permit to operate it. The construction permit apphcation must be completed prior to the initiation of construction of any air pollution source. Failure to do so could result in a 25,000 per day fine. In some states, initiation of construction was interpreted as issuance of a purchase order for a piece of equipment in others, groundbreaking for the new construction. Therefore, to ensure compliance with the air permit requirement, this author suggests that completion of the air permit be given first priority in any project involving air emissions into the atmosphere. The best practice is to have the state-approved permit in hand before beginning construction. Most states have their permit forms on the Internet, and a hard copy can be downloaded. Alternatively, the permit forms can be filled out electronically and submitted. 

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