Environmental consideration

A comprehensive assessment of the environmental impact of any CFC alternative should be made in weighing its relative benefits and liabihties. The magnitude, impact, and disposition of all waste sneams should be evaluated. Differences in safety and toxicity need to be considered. Energy requirements may vary substantially, resulting in environmental as well as economic impact. 

If handled responsibly, PFCs can be excellent choices to replace ozone-depleting compounds in many demanding, high-performance applications. Perfluorinated liquids are colorless, odorless, essentially nontoxic, and nonflammable. In addition, since they are not precursors to photochemical smog, PFCs are exempt from the U.S. EPAs volatile organic compounds (VOC) definition. Most importantly, these materials do not contain the carbon-bound chlorine or bromine, which can cause ozone depletion. 

Practically, very low emission rates with PFCs should be achievable for a number of reasons. First, lower loss rates can be obtained because of several beneficial physical properties of PFCs compared to CFCs and other halogenated 

Mark W. Grenfell, Frank W. Klink. and John G. Owens, Presented at the Nepcon West 1994 Conference, Anaheim, CA, March 4, 1994. 

DuPont Polymer Products Department Technical Brochure, No. H-12064. 

As with all water-based extinguishing systems, there are temperature considerations associated with water-spray systems. In cold climates where freezing is a potential problem, selection of a water-spray system should not only be based on potential benefits, but also on the possibility of reliability problems. Care should be taken in the design to ensure that the 

For activities surrounding the installation of the change, the facility work permitting program should have made provisions for special environmental concerns  

The pre-startup safety review process can check that these items were evaluated and in place. 

With regard to long term operation of the changed process, consider the following environmental characteristics  

The PSSR process can verify the regulatory needs are met prior to exposing the facility to the risk of findings or citations. 

Although the definition of process safety primarily involves preventing catastrophic incidents, basic worker safety and health receives attention as well when building a rigorous integrated process safety management program. 

Adhesion requires the use of a variety of compounds that may be safe, hazardous, flammable, or form hazardous waste. Table 13.5 provides a partial list of some of the more commonly used chemicals. There has been extensive collaboration between the industry and the governmental environmental protection agencies to reduce all emissions. For instance, the Design for Environment (DfE) program in the Environmental Protection Agency s (EPA) Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics has been a voluntary partnership with the industry to develop and distribute pollution prevention and environmental and human health risks on alternative chemicals, processes, and products. The DfE approach uses cleaner technologies 

Additional information can be obtained by contacting the United States EPA (www.USEPA.com) or individual companies. 

As demonstrated in the stockpile disposal program, there is considerable public opposition to the incineration of chemical munitions or agents. However, the Army based its 1993 preliminary cost and schedule estimates on the use of incinerators to destroy potentially large portions of its nonstockpile chemical materiel. The opposition centers around concerns about adverse health effects and environmental hazards. 

This opposition, which has come from several citizen groups, environmental organizations, and state governments, has extended the environmental review and approval process and resulted in postponing the construction and operation of fixed incinerators. The actual disposal methods for the nonstockpile program will be selected by the Army after comprehensive environmental reviews are completed with the participation of the affected states, local governments, and public. 

Metal bodies and other uncontaminated materiel Crushing and smelting 

Energetic materiel, such as fuses, bursters, and propellants Incineration 

Uncontaminated metal parts and materiel Crushing and smelting 

This section is mostly concerned with the presence of phosgene in the atmosphere, its formation and removal in both the troposphere (lower atmosphere) and stratosphere (upper atmosphere) and its possible effects on that part of the stratosphere known as the ozone layer. 

All individuals and companies have a duty of care to their neighbours, and to the environment in general. In the United Kingdom this is embodied in the Common Law. In addition to this moral duty, stringent controls over the environment are being introduced in the United Kingdom, the European Union, the United States, and in other industrialised countries and developing countries. 

Vigilance is required in both the design and operation of process plant to ensure that legal standards are met and that no harm is done to the environment. 

Because ILs are neoteric (i.e., new) solvents that have the potential to be used on a large scale in the future, it is important that the impact on the environment of each IL should be thoroughly investigated before it is brought to market. It is to be hoped that in common with other chemicals, ILs would be properly disposed of, preferably by treatment/recovery, and if this is not possible, by landfill or incineration. Although landfill has traditionally provided a cheap means of waste disposal, it is becoming increasingly impractical and expensive to implement now that suitable landfill sites 

Handbook of Green Chemistry Volume 9 Designing Safer Chemicals, First Edition. Edited by Robert Boethling and Adelina Voutchkova. 

British Soft Drinks Association 20-22 Stukeley Street London WC2B 5LR, UK Tel +44 (0)20 7430 0356 Fax +44 (0)20 7831 6014 www.britishsoftdrinks.com 

Glass Training Ltd BGMC Building Northumberland Road Sheffield S10 2UA, UK Tel +44(0)114 266 1494 

There is no doubt that the greenhouse effect is real. The greenhouse effect is a natural occurrence responsible for the current climatic conditions on Earth. Without this natural effect, the Earth s temperature would be about 33°C colder (IPCC 2001). The ultimate question is how the Earth s climate system will respond to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases caused by human activities. Atmospheric concentrations of the main greenhouse gas - carbon dioxide - released during the combustion of fossil fuels have increased exponentially from 280 parts per million (ppm) to just over 370 ppm since the Industrial Revolution (IPCC 2001). 

The country is flush with natural gas as a result of new drilling techniques that have enabled energy companies to tap vast supplies that were out of reach not so long ago. The country s natural gas surplus has been growing even as the country burns record amounts. 

The Rule of Capture generally permits a landowner to drain or capture oil and natural gas from a neighboring property without liability or recourse. 

Organizations must also be concerned with aspects of the environment. There will be an interaction between the 

There are three environmental issues which place statutory duties on employers and are directly related to the health and safety function. These are  

The statutory duties are contained in the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA) and several of its subsequent regulations. The Act is enforced by various state agencies (the Environment Agency and Local Authorities) and these agencies have very similar powers to the Health and Safety Executive (e.g. enforcement and prohibition notices and prosecution). There Is a summary of Parts 1 and 2 of the EPA In Chapter 20. 

The most common airborne pollutants are carbon monoxide, benzene, 1,3-butadiene, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead. Air pollution is currently monitored by Integrated Pollution Control (IPC). This is a system established by Part 1 of the EPA which introduced two tiers of pollution control  

This division has lead to some anomalies in that some Part A processes create less pollution than some Part B processes. However, the grouping of three pollution destinations under one arrangement tends to a more holistic approach. 

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All too often safety and health (and environmental) considerations are left to the final stages of the design. Returning to the hierarchy of design illustrated by the onion diagram in Fig. 1.6, such considerations would add another layer in the diagram outside the utilities layer. This approach leaves much to be desired. 

As with safety, environmental considerations are usually left to a late stage in the design. However, like safety, early decisions often can lead to difficult environmental problems which later require complex solutions. Again, it is better to consider effluent problems as the design progresses in order to avoid complex waste treatment systems. 

Following this hierarchy, all to often safety, health and environmental considerations are left to the final stages of design. This approach leaves much to be desired, since early decisions made purely for process reasons often can lead to problems of safety, health, and environment that require complex solutions. It is better... 

Exploration activities are potentially damaging to the environment. The cutting down of trees in preparation for an onshore seismic survey may result in severe soil erosion in years to come. Offshore, fragile ecological systems such as reefs can be permanently damaged by spills of crude or mud chemicals. Responsible companies will therefore carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) prior to activity planning and draw up contingency plans should an accident occur. In Section 4.0 a more detailed description of health, safety and environmental considerations will be provided. 

Much of the bromine output in the U.S. was used in the production of ethylene dibromide, a lead scavenger used in making gasoline antiknock compounds. Lead in gasoline, however, has been drastically reduced, due to environmental considerations. This will greatly affect future production of bromine. 

Environmental Considerations. Environmental problems in Ziegler chemistry alcohol processes are not severe. A small quantity of aluminum alkyl wastes is usually produced and represents the most significant disposal problem. It can be handled by controlled hydrolysis and separate disposal of the aqueous and organic streams. Organic by-products produced in chain growth and hydrolysis can be cleanly burned. Wastewater streams must be monitored for dissolved carbon, such as short-chain alcohols, and treated conventionally when necessary. 

AvaUabUity and cost of raw materials and processing equipment Simplicity and cost of manufacture and inspection Manufacturing hazards PropeUant viscosity and flowabUity Environmental considerations... 

Disposal of exhausted soHds can be easily overlooked at the plant design stage, particularly when these have no intrinsic value alternative disposal methods might include landfiU of inert material or incineration, hydrolysis, or pyrolysis of organic materials. Liquid, soHd, and gaseous emissions are aU subject to the usual environmental considerations. 

The predominant cellulose ester fiber is cellulose acetate, a partially acetylated cellulose, also called acetate or secondary acetate. It is widely used in textiles because of its attractive economics, bright color, styling versatiUty, and other favorable aesthetic properties. However, its largest commercial appHcation is as the fibrous material in cigarette filters, where its smoke removal properties and contribution to taste make it the standard for the cigarette industry. Cellulose triacetate fiber, also known as primary cellulose acetate, is an almost completely acetylated cellulose. Although it has fiber properties that are different, and in many ways better than cellulose acetate, it is of lower commercial significance primarily because of environmental considerations in fiber preparation. 

Environmental Considerations. The phosphate flame retardants, plasticizers, and functional fluids have come under intense environmental scmtiny. Results pubUshed to date on acute toxicity to aquatic algae, invertebrates, and fish indicate substantial differences between the various aryl phosphates (159—162). The EPA has summarized this data as well as the apparent need for additional testing (147). 

Isomeri2ation of straight-chain hydrocarbons is of particular importance for lead-free gasoline. Addition of high octane aromatic hydrocarbons or olefins is questionable based on environmental considerations (77). An efficient octane enhancing additive is methyl tert-huty ether (MTBE). 

Environmental considerations also were reflected in coal production and consumption statistics, including regional production patterns and economic sector utilization characteristics. Average coal sulfur content, as produced, declined from 2.3% in 1973 to 1.6% in 1980 and 1.3% in 1990. Coal ash content declined similarly, from 13.1% in 1973 to 11.1% in 1980 and 9.9% in 1990. These numbers clearly reflect a trend toward utilization of coal that produces less SO2 and less flyash to capture. Emissions from coal in the 1990s were 14 x 10 t /yr of SO2 and 450 x 10 t /yr of particulates generated by coal combustion at electric utiUties. The total coal combustion emissions from all sources were only slightly higher than the emissions from electric utiUty coal utilization (6). 

Factors which may affect the cost of coal upgrading are environmental considerations such as toxicity, hazardous waste disposal, and carcinogenic properties (131). These and other environmental problems from process streams, untreated wastewaters, and raw products would figure significantly into the cost of commercialization. 

These processes tend to produce Hquids that are higher priced than those derived from cmde oil. Timing for commercialization depends on a number of factors, including price of cmde oil, need for energy self-sufficiency, and environmental considerations. The factors are different for each of the potential sources. Environmental considerations include polution from burning the fuel itself, poUution from the whole production cycle, and production of gases that are involved in the enhanced greenhouse effect (see Air pollution). 

Health and Safety Factors and Environmental Considerations. The toxicological properties of alginates have been extensively investigated, and it has been estabUshed that alginates are safe to use in foods (28). 

Stabilizers. Heat stabilizers (qv) are included in PVC compounds to counteract the internal generation of hydrogen chloride as well as the external degradative effect of heat. Due to environmental considerations, there is a trend toward decreasing and even avoiding the use of stabilizers based on heavy metals, eg, lead. 

The nitroparaffins have been utilized for many appHcations (114). Some of these uses have been discontinued because of economic and environmental considerations. For instance, significant quantities of 1-nitropropane once were used for the production of hydroxylammonium sulfate and propionic acid by hydrolysis. The need to dispose of an acid waste stream from this process made it uneconomical, so it was discontinued. 

M. J. Cmickshank, Technological and Environmental Considerations in the Exploration and Exploitation of Marine Minerals, Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1978. 

Nonregenerative caustic treatment is generally economically appHed when the contaminating materials are low in concentration and waste disposal is not a problem. However, the use of nonregenerative systems is on the decline because of the frequentiy occurring waste disposal problems that arise from environmental considerations and because of the availabiHty of numerous other processes that can effect more complete removal of contaminating materials. 

Due to environmental considerations, many phenol plants are equipped with a special water treatment faciUty where acetone and phenol are recovered from the wastewater stream. Also, recovered heavy residue is considered a K-022 waste material by the U.S. EPA and must be properly disposed of by incineration or other means (12). 

The primary siting factors which influence the selection of a plant location are as follows environmental considerations, labor avadabihty and productivity, raw material avadabihty, proximity to market, property cost, accessibdity to transportation, tax iacentives, electric power avadabdity and cost, and living conditions. 

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