Nutrition reference values

Matrix Components The term matrix component refers to the constituents in the material aside from those being determined, which are denoted as analyte. Clearly, what is a matrix component to one analyst may be an analyte to another. Thus, in one hand for the case of analyses for elemental content, components such as dietary fibre, ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate are classified as matrix components and are used to define the nature of the material. On the other hand, reference values are required to monitor the quality of determinations of these nutritionally significant matrix components. Hence, there is a challenging immediate need for certified values for dietary fibre, ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. Concomitantly, these values must be accompanied by scientifically sound definitions (e.g. total soluble dietary fibre, total sulpha-ted ash, total unsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, individual lipids, simple sugars, and complex carbohydrates). 

Reference Intakes (DRIs). In the past, the recommended dietary allowances (RDAs), which are the levels of intake of essential nutrients that are considered to be adequate to meet the known nutritional needs of practically all healthy persons, were the primary reference value for vitamins and other nutrients. The DRIs also include other reference values, such as the estimated average requirement (EAR) and the adequate intake (AI). The RDA, EAR, and AI reference standards define nutritional intake adequacy. Since these recommendations are given for healthy populations in general and not for individuals, special problems, such as premature birth, inherited metabolic disorders, infections, chronic disease, and use of medications, are not covered by the requirements. Separate RDAs have been developed for pregnant and lactating women. Vitamin supplementation may be required by patients with special conditions and for those who do not consume an appropriate diet. 

German Nutrition Society, Austrian Nutrition Society, Swiss Society for Nutrition Research, Swiss Nutrition Association, Reference Values for Nutrition Intake, 1st edition, Umschau Braus, Frankfurt, 2002. 

Reference values are given according to age, fed state, fasting state, diet and nutritional status (Table 1.4.6). Figure 1.4.4 shows the evolution of KB level as a function of fasting time and age [4, 17]. The reference values for lactate/creatinine/pyruvate are as follows ... 

United States regulations on nutrition labeling of foods require that cholesterol content be given and that it be analyzed by GC measurement as shown in the AOAC method, which uses a packed column (Lewis et al., 1996 AOAC, 1990). The reference value, which is a set of recommended nutrient intake levels of cholesterol, is defined as 300 mg. However, the Codex guideline does not request labeling of cholesterol. Cholesterol contents in some foods and foodstuffs determined by GC measurement are summarized in Table Dl.3.3. 

Remer T, Neubert A, Maser-Gluth C. 2002. Anthropometry-based reference values for 24-h urinary creatinine excretion during growth and their use in endocrine and nutritional research. Am J Clin Nutr 75 561-569. 

Comparing Occupational Reference Values with Results of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey... 

Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ICP-AES is a technique half-way between FAAS and ET-AAS in terms of detection power. Among all ICP-AES features its robustness against matrix effects and its ability to carry out multielemental analysis predominate as the most advantageous [76-80], Multielemental analysis has also been successfully used to establish reference values [6, 76, 81-84] for many major and trace essential elements in different matrices of biological and nutritional interest, particularly in milk samples [81-83], Reference values for minor and trace element in human milk are collected in Table 13.8. 

From a nutritional viewpoint, it is necessary to stress the current importance of carrying out the multielemental analysis of milk samples (either human, cow s, or formula milk) in order to establish the reference values of essential elements and quantify the levels of potentially toxic elements. This fact is more relevant to formula milk production for premature babies as some essential elements are not stored by the fetus during its development in the uterus. Attention has been already paid to the qualitative and quantitative composition (analysis) of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and, of course, essential elements. However, in the case of human nutrition, knowledge on the particular species (compounds) in which a given element is present (chemical speciation) is now urgently needed, because the absorption and bioavailability of the essential element will strongly depend on that particular chemical form. Thus, although only the total element daily requirements have been considered here, it is important to stress that more attention must be paid to the chemical form in which essential and potentially toxic elements are present in milk. Such aspects are dealt with in detail in Chapter 13 by B. Michalke et al. 

Metabolic diseases A fatty liver does not require a low-fat diet, but standard nutrition based on general reference values for normal daily routine. With a normal body weight and an increased energy requirement (work, sports), the calorie intake has to be adjusted accordingly. In overweight patients, a slow, continuous, yet systematic weight reduction should be strived for. Coexistent hyperlipoproteinaemia may require supportive treatment. Diabetes mellitus must be properly eon-trolled. This also applies to concomitant gout. 

Metabolic bone disease in children receiving parenteral nutrition manifests primarily as osteopenia and, on occasion, fractures (5). The etiology is multifactorial calcium and phosphate deficiency play a major role in the preterm infant but the part played by aluminium toxicity in this population is unknown. Lack of reference values of bone histomorphometry in the premature infant, as well as lack of reference data for biochemical markers of bone turnover in these patients, contributes to the uncertainty. Other factors that may play a role in the pathogenesis of bone disease associated with parenteral nutrition include lack of periodic enteral feeding underljdng intestinal disease, including malabsorption and inflammation the presence of neoplasms and drug-induced alterations in calcium and bone metabohsm. However, the true incidence and prevalence of parenteral nutrition-associated bone abnormalities in pediatric patients are unknown. 

The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act defines a Daily Reference Value for sodium to be listed in the Nutrition Facts portion of a food label. 

Every human body requires certain amounts of various macro- and micronutrients, water, and fiber to function properly, objective 1 (Section 12.1), Exercise 12.2. The amounts needed vary with a number of factors such as body size, age, and sex. Various countries have established nutritional guidelines in attempts to maintain good health for their citizens. In the United States, the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) and Daily Reference Values (DRV) are designed to represent appropriate nutrient intake for 95% of the population. 

EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA). Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre. EFSA J 2010 8(3) 1462—539. (acceded in 26.03.2014) http //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/search/doc/1462.pdf. 

The vitamin C status of elderly persons over the age of 65 years ranged from 25 jLmol/liter to 159 jimol/liter (0.43 mg/100 ml to 2.72 mg/100 ml) with a mean of 73 23 JLmol/liter (1.24 0.38 mg/100 ml) 10% of all obtained values were below the reference value of 47 ixmol/liter (0.8 mg/100 ml) (Table VI). These findings from Austrian elderly people were confirmed by the results of a German study on nutrition and risk factor analysis (VERA) (Heseker et aL, 1992). 

Reference intakes depend on age and gender. For nutritional labelling of foods it is obviously essential to have a single labelling reference value that will permit the consumer to compare the nutrient yields of different foods. Apart from foods aimed at infants and small children, for which age-related reference intakes are used, there are two ways of determining labelling reference values ... 

The Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has recently devised a new nomenclature for human nutrient needs [30]. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) refer to a set of four nutrient-based reference values, termed the estimated average requirement (EAR), the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), adequate intake (AI), and the tolerable upper intake level (UL). The EAR is defined in the same way as in the CEC and UK recommendations. The RDA is now somewhat more rigorously defined to be the EAR + 2 SD (standard deviations), i.e. equivalent to the RNI and PRI in the UK and CEC systems. 

LRNI, Lower Reference Nutrient Intake RNI, Reference Nutrient Intake Al, Adequate Intake RDA, Recommended Dietary Allowance. Sources UK Department of Health (1991) Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom, Report on Health and Social Subjects No. 41. London HMSO. USA Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine (2000) Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carotenoids. Washington, DC National Academy Press. WHO/FAO WHO/FAO (2002) Human Vitamin and Mineral Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand. Rome WHO/ FAO. 

Information about a food s potassium content is required on the nutrition facts panel only if the food contains added potassium as a nutrient or if claims about it as a nutrient appear on the label. In all other cases, it is voluntary. The recommended daily value for potassium is 3500 mg. The following labels have been designated for foods high potassium (700 mg or more per serving) good source of potassium (350—665 mg per serving) more or added potassium (at least 350 mg more per serving than the reference food) (43). 

By definition, a nutraceutical (derived from the term nutritional pharmaceutical ) is a foodstuff (fortified food or dietary supplement) that is held to provide health or medical benefits in addition to its basic nutritional value [1], Nutraceuticals derived from botanicals deliver a concentrated form of presumed bioactive agents from plants that are not generally part of the food supply. The term nutraceutical has no regulatory definition. Similarly, functional foods, as defined by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI), are foods that by virtue of physiologically active food components, provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition [2], For the purposes of this review, these two terms will be differentiated by the form in which they are consumed. Nutraceuticals refers to dietary supplements most often found in pill or capsule form functional foods are ingested as part of a normal food pattern. Both are intended to provide beneficial effects beyond their nutritional value, and contribute to an improved state of health and/or reduction of risk of disease. 

In addition to RDIs and RDAs, there is a set of values termed the dietary reference intakes (DRIs). These are the most recent set of dietary recommendations established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine, 1997-2001. DRIs vary significantly from the current RDIs and may provide the basis for updating the RDIs in the future (see www.nal.usda.gOv/fnic/etext/000105.html). 

The RDA values are not requirements they are recommended daily intakes of certain essential nutrients. Based on available scientific knowledge, they are believed to be adequate for known nutritional needs for most healthy people under usual environmental stresses. The recommended allowances vary for age and sex, with extra allowances for women during pregnancy and lactation. The most commonly used RDA values (the reference male and reference female ) are those of adults 23 to 50 years of age. With the exception of energy (kilocalories), the RDA provide for individual requirement variations and prevent symptoms of clinical deficiency of 97% of the population. 

Ca requirements in the United States are currently set as AIs. The recommended AI for Ca is an approximated value estimated to cover the needs of all healthy individuals in the age group based on experimental or observational data that show a mean intake which appears to sustain a desired indicator of health (e.g., desirable Ca retention) however, lack of sufficient evidence precludes specifying with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake (Standing Committee of the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, and Institute of Medicine, 1997). 

Fluid milk contains approximately 3.5% protein (USDA, CFEI 1976). Casein, found only in milk, comprises about 82% of the total milk protein, and whey proteins, principally /3-lactoglobulin and a-lactalbumin, constitute the remaining 18% (Lampert 1975 Jonas et al. 1976). Casein, because of its excellent nutritional value, is used routinely as a reference protein to evaluate the quality of protein in other foods (Jonas et al. 1976 Hambraeus 1982). 

Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry has always been a reference text which has attempted to provide a complete treatise on the chemistry of milk and the relevant research. The third edition carries on in that format which has proved successful over four previous editions (Fundamentals of Dairy Science 1928, 1935 and Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry 1965, 1974). Not only is the material brought up-to-date, indeed several chapters have been completely re-written, but attempts have been made to streamline this edition. In view of the plethora of research related to dairy chemistry, authors were asked to reduce the number of references by eliminating the early, less significant ones. In addition, two chapters have been replaced with subjects which we felt deserved attention Nutritive Value of Dairy Foods and Chemistry of Processing. Since our society is now more attuned to the quality of the food it consumes and the processes necessary to preserve that quality, the addition of these topics seemed justified. This does not minimize the importance of the information in the deleted chapters, Vitamins of Milk and Frozen Dairy Products. Some of the material in these previous chapters has been incorporated into the new chapters furthermore, the information in these chapters is available in the second edition, as a reprint from ADSA (Vitamins in Milk and Milk Products, November 1965) or in the many texts on ice cream manufacture. 

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