Field of application

The results of pharmacological studies of the potential non-peptide fibrinogen receptor antagonist, viz., thieno[2,3- )]thiophene-based compound 172, were reported (71JCS1308, 95PCT9504531  

Pyrimidine nucleosides 314 containing the thieno[3,2-Z ]thiophene substituent hold promise against HIV and hepatitis B and were patented (90PCT8912061). 

2-(Thienothienylglycyl)cephalosporin (85JMC1896, 86USP4581352) and 2-(thie-nothienylphenyl)carbapenam derivatives (93USP5143914) possess antibacterial properties. 

Thieno[3,2-Z)]thiophene-2-carboxamides 317, which were prepared as mixtures of diastereomers and separated by high-performance liquid chromatography, were patented as cysteine protease inhibitors (98PCT9822494, 2001PCT0134153, 2001PCT0134154, 2001PCT0134159, 200IPCTO134565). 

Amidines of the thieno[3,2-6]thiophene series 318 were patented as urokinase inhibitors (94EUP568289). 

The different methods of AAS and also the related CFS are very powerful for the analysis of solutions. The instruments are simple and easy to operate. Accordingly, they are now used in almost all analytical laboratories. In particular, when one or only a few elements have to be determined in a large number of samples, as is e.g. the case in clinical analysis or in food analysis, AAS methods are of great use as compared with other methods of elemental analysis. 

To a limited extent atomic absorption spectrometry can also be used for multielement determinations. Several manufacturers introduced systems with multi- 

When solids have to be analyzed, the samples must be brought into solution and sample decomposition methods have to be used. They range from simple dissolution in aqueous solutions to a treatment with strong and oxidizing acids or eventually fluxes at high temperature and/or pressure. 

As an alternative to resistive heating, microwave assisted digestion is finding more and more acceptance [311]. The mechanisms of digestion are under discussion, but it may be that in a number of cases dipole molecules dissociate earlier as 

In some cases such as in the analysis of ZrC 2, use is made of ammonium salts. This has the advantage that the melting procedure can be performed in quartz crucibles limiting the risk of contamination, that the salts are relatively pure as they can be prepared from pure chemicals (NH3 gas and CIHSO3, e.g. see Ref. [312]), and that the excess can be volatilized at low temperatures which makes the risk of analyte losses through volatilization low. For example, with NH4HSO4, the melting procedure can be performed at 400 °C and the excess of flux volatilized at below 500 °C. 

A further possibility to reduce the salt contents is their separation from the analysis solutions by techniques such as ion exchange or adsorption of the analytes, after initial complexation onto columns filled with suitable solid phases. 

A method performance study may also be used to evaluate the performance of a new analytical method or an automated form of an already existing method [1,19]. Under certain circumstances a method performance study may be called intercalibration study. This should only concern exercises where the calibration of methods is investigated e.g. studies on calibrants, calibrant solutions, calibration procedures etc. Such studies are more frequent in physical measurements for metrological purposes. 

Investigations on sampling may be conducted as interlaboratory studies. In that case the analysts have to move to one central place with their own sampling equipment. After having taken the sample they perform the measurements in their own laboratory. The influence of the sampling technique on the total uncertainty of the analysis can only be evaluated after having assessed, in a parallel study, the uncertainty due to the final determination. 

Such studies are carried out in cases where the sampling technique is of paramount importance, i.e. where the sampling technique is suspect of changing the integrity of the sample but also in cases where it is impossible to produce a common (stable) sample for an analytical intercomparison [20]. 

The theory of van der Waals attraction has a broad variety of applications. There are, first of all, the van der Waals gases, to which the name was first applied. The well-known van der Waals equation of state 

The force responsible for the attraction between any two molecules is at the same time the origin of condensation and crystallization. There is a large class of van der Waals crystals. The simplest of these are the inert gas crystals, which are composed of spherical atoms. Solid helium normally shows a hexagonal close-packed structure. In addition, a 

Striking examples are the formation of liquid crystalline phases in solutions of water and ampholytic substances and the anomalous 

Zeeman AAS system. As the spectra contain only some resonance lines, a spectrometer with just a low spectral resolution is required. The detection limits depend considerably on the primary source and on the atom reservoir used. When using a xenon lamp as the primary source, multi-element determinations can be performed, but the power of detection will be low as the spectral radiances are low as compared with those of a hollow cathode lamp. By using high-intensity laser sources, the intensities of the signals and accordingly the power of detection can be considerably improved. Indeed, both Ip k) and Iy k) are proportional to Io(k). When furnaces are used as the atomizers, typical detection limits in the case of a xenon arc are Cd 4, Pb 0.9, T1 1.5, Fe 2.5, and Zn 50 ng [358]. They are considerably higher than in furnace AAS. 

To a hmrted extent, atomic absorption spectrometry can also be used for multielement determinations. Several manufacturers introduced systems with multilamp turrets, where different lamps can be held under pre-heated conditions. Here, rapid switching from one lamp to another enables sequential multi-element determinations to be made by flame atomic absorption, for a maximum of around five elements. Simultaneous determinations are possible with multi-element lamps, however, the number of elements that can be brought together and used as a hollow cathode lamp with a sufficiently stable radiation output and lifetime is rather limited. The use of continuous sources facilitates flexible multi-element determinations for many elements in principle. It is necessary to use high-resolution spectrometers (e.g., echelle spectrometers) with multi-channel detection. CCDs of- 

Refractory samples are often only present as granulates and are hard to grind. Indeed, here the abrasion of the mills (be it even a hard material such as WC) is high and this leads to contamination and consequently to interferences in the AAS determination. In this case, melting with fluxes is the only method of digestion. 

Corrosion problems may occur in numerous systems within the petroleum industry. These include  

Many compositions involve environmentally dangerous products, such as chromates, fatty amines of high molecular weights, imidazolines, etc. The use of some of the alternatives, for instance, polyphosphate or polyphosphonate, is limited because they precipitate in the presence of the salts of alkaline earth metals or because of their high costs. 

When the bottom plates are welded together, the coating is partially destroyed. Research and field work showed that protection can be achieved using volatile corrosion inhibitors under the tank [688]. This works alone or in combination with cathodic protection. Double tank bottoms for leakage monitoring are often specified for new tanks. However, the same problem of coating destruction occurs. Volatile corrosion inhibitors are an excellent solution from both a technical and an economic standpoint. This type of corrosion inhibitor 

The normal industrial practice for controlling the internal corrosion of petroleum pipelines is to use coatings, nonmetallic pipeline materials, or corrosion inhibitors. Corrosion inhibitors, which are used for the protection of oil pipelines, are often complex mixtures. 

Epoxide resins with aromatic amines are used as coatings for pipelines [305-307]. 

Radiation curing is used for special coatings, inks, adhesives, and in other special areas. 

Plastic coatings for interior and exterior applications are also an important use segment. Important factors are cost, adhesion, weatherability, and availability of raw materials. 

Adhesion to metal is sometimes difficult to achieve. However, due to the development of adhesion promoters industrial applications on metal exist. Electronics applications are important photoresists (both wet and dry film), solder masks, potting compounds, and conformal coatings are products based on UV-curable materials. 

Optical fibers have been coated with a protective layer of UV-curable materials for a long time. 

Intaglio inks (special inks used to avoid counterfeiting of items such as bank notes) are also employed and ink-jet printing with UV-curable materials is starting. 

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The field of application for liquid chromatography in the petroleum world is vast separation of diesel fuel by chemical families, separation of distillation residues (see Tables 3.4 and 3.5), separation of polynuclear aromatics, and separation of certain basic nitrogen derivatives. Some examples are given later in this section. 

Some attempts, not yet very convincing, have been made to extend the field of application to gas oils by heating the column. 

Practical experience has shown that, depending on the field of application, a considerable reduction in inspection costs can be had when opting for radioscopy rather than radiography. By comparison with film technique, the inspection time of turbine blades for aircraft jet propulsion engines is reduced by 45% to 60%. When adding film costs, approximately DM 450.000,- can be saved per year /3/. As far as... 

In the wide field of applications, a visibility level VL = 3 - 60 is recommended. For our recognition task, we are obliged to take into account that our random conditions are far from the experimental conditions of the basic researches (Young test person with a high visus under ideal environmental conditions) [4]. Furthermore in our case we have a more difficult visual searching task. Parameter variations as the increase of presentation time from 0,2 to 1.0 s. and the detection propability from 50% to 100% are taken into account [5] In spite of the gliding variations of the parameters as well as the visibility level, for simplification let us assume VL = 10 as minimum requirement. 

The performances of ultrasound generated and detected by lasers offer a wide field of applications in industry, so that we will pursue research for the testing of very small strucmres which could only be examined by a contactless technique. 

Keljzers C P, Reljerse E and Schmidt J 1989 Pulsed EPR a New Field of Applications (Amsterdam North-Holland)... 

The most important fields of application for PVDF resias iaclude electric and electronic iadustry products, architectural and specialty finishes, products for the chemical and related iadustries, and rapidly growing specialized uses. 

Seawater Evaporators The production of potable water from saline waters represents a large and growing field of application for evaporators. Extensive work done in this field to 1972 was summarized in the annual Saline Water Conversion Repoi ts of the Office of Sahne Water, U.S. Department of the Interior. Steam economies on the order of 10 kg evaporation/kg steam are usually justified because (1) unit production capacities are high, (2) fixed charges are low on capital used for pubhc works (i.e., they use long amortization periods and have low interest rates, with no other return on investment considered), (3) heat-transfer performance is comparable with that of pure water, and (4) properly treated seawater causes httle deterioration due to scahng or fouhng. 

Dielectric dryers have not as yet found a wide field of application. Their fundamental characteristic of generating heat within the solid indicates potentialities for diying massive geometrical objects such as wood, sponge-rubber shapes, and ceramics. Power costs may range to 10 times the fuel costs of conventional methods. 

Field of Application Because of the high labor requirements usually associated with loading or unloading the compartments, batch compartment equipment is rarely economical except in the following situations ... 

Field of Application Agitated diyers are apphcable to process-... 

Fields of Application One of the major advantages of the gravity-bed technique is that it lends itself well to true intimate counter-current contacting of solids and gases. This provides for efficient heat transfer and mass transfer. Gravity-bed contacting also permits the use of the sohd as a heat-transfer medium, as in pebble heaters. 

When heavier refractories are required because of operating conditions, insulating brick is installed next to the shell and firebrick is installed to protect the insulating brick. Industrial experience in many fields of application has demonstrated that such a hning will success-billy withstand the abrasive conditions for many years without replacement. Most serious refractory wear occurs with coarse particles at high gas velocities and is usually most pronounced near the operating level of the fluidized bed. 

An interesting field of application is the protection of tantalum against hydrogen embrittlement by electrical connection to platinum metals. The reduction in hydrogen overvoltage and the shift of the free corrosion potential to more positive values apparently leads to a reduced coverage by adsorbed hydrogen and thereby lower absorption [43] (see Sections 2.1 and 2.3.4). 

This handbook deals mainly with the practice of cathodic protection, but the discussion includes fundamentals and related fields as far as these are necessary for a complete review of the subject. We thought it appropriate to include a historical introduction in order to explain the technological development of corrosion protection. The second chapter explains the theoretical basis of metal corrosion and corrosion protection. We have deliberately given practical examples of combinations of various materials and media in order to exemplify the numerous fields of application of electrochemical protection. 

Further chapters cover in detail the characteristics and applications of galvanic anodes and of cathodic protection rectifiers, including specialized instruments for stray current protection and impressed current anodes. The fields of application discussed are buried pipelines storage tanks tank farms telephone, power and gas-pressurized cables ships harbor installations and the internal protection of water tanks and industrial plants. A separate chapter deals with the problems of high-tension effects on pipelines and cables. A study of costs and economic factors concludes the discussion. The appendix contains those tables and mathematical derivations which appeared appropriate for practical purposes and for rounding off the subject. 

Together with XPS and AES, SSIMS ranks as one of the principal surface analytical techniques. Because its sensitivity for elements greatly exceeds that of the other two techniques and much chemical information is available, its use is rapidly expanding in many fields of application. 

The basic instrumental set-up for dynamic SIMS is the same as for SSIMS (Sect. 3.1.2). Depending on the intensity, beam diameter, and ion species needed, dif ferent ion sources are used. Several mass analyzers with different characteristics enable a broad field of applications. 

In principle GD-MS is very well suited for analysis of layers, also, and all concepts developed for SNMS (Sect. 3.3) can be used to calculate the concentration-depth profile from the measured intensity-time profile by use of relative or absolute sensitivity factors [3.199]. So far, however, acceptance of this technique is hesitant compared with GD-OES. The main factors limiting wider acceptance are the greater cost of the instrument and the fact that no commercial ion source has yet been optimized for this purpose. The literature therefore contains only preliminary results from analysis of layers obtained with either modified sources of the commercial instrument [3.200, 3.201] or with homebuilt sources coupled to quadrupole [3.199], sector field [3.202], or time-of-flight instruments [3.203]. To summarize, the future success of GD-MS in this field of application strongly depends on the availability of commercial sources with adequate depth resolution comparable with that of GD-OES. 

In conclusion RAIRS, which affords high spectral resolution, is a very versatile nondestructive optical technique which does not depend on a vacuum environment. Vibrational spectra also serve as characteristic fingerprints for adsorbate molecules, adsorption configurations, and structures on metallic and dielectric substrates. Extension to include dielectric substrates opened new fields of application in polymer and biochemical research. 

The label-free detection of biomolecules is another promising field of application for SERS spectroscopy. Tiniest amounts of these molecules can be adsorbed by specific interactions with receptors immobilized on SERS-active surfaces. They can then be identified by their spectra, or specific interactions can be distinguished from unspecific interactions by monitoring characteristic changes in the conformation sensitive SERS spectra of the receptors. 

It is seen that the molecular weight of a solute having a density between 0.85 and 1.25 can be estimated experimentally from peak width measurements for 90% of the compounds within an error of 13% (80% of the samples gave an error of less than 10%). Again, depending on the field of application, it should be noted that such data for a given substance can be obtained in addition to its separation from... 

These are the second great field of application for aluminum alloys, with the exception of aluminum magnesium alloys. One restriction always applies... 

The fields of application are wide involving computational fluid dynamics (CFD), flow in ducts and pipes, pumps, fans, collection devices, pollution dispersal, and many other applications. 

Table 23 Hydrophilic fluorescence intensifiers and their fields of application...

Fig. 54 Fields of application and frequency distribution of biological-physiological detection methods.

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