Production units

Chromatographic techniques, particularly gas phase chromatography, are used throughout all areas of the petroleum industry research centers, quality control laboratories and refining units. The applications covered are very diverse and include gas composition, search and analysis of contaminants, monitoring production units, feed and product analysis. We will show but a few examples in this section to give the reader an idea of the potential, and limits, of chromatographic techniques. 

Knowledge of physical properties of fluids is essential to the process engineer because it enables him to specify, size or verify the operation of equipment in a production unit. The objective of this chapter is to present a collection of methods used in the calculation of physical properties of mixtures encountered in the petroleum industry, different kinds of hydrocarbon components, and some pure compounds. 

Figures 10.12 and 10.13 show, respectively, a flow diagram for lubricant oil production by hydrorefining and an integrated lubricating oil production unit using both extraction and hydrorefining.

The concentrated hydrogen sulfide gas is then sent to the sulfur production unit (Claus process). 

Most of the aquaculture practiced around the world is conducted in ponds (Eig. 2). Ponds range in size but production units are generally 0.1 to 10 ha in area. The intensity of aquaculture in ponds can range from a few kg/ha to thousands of kg/ha of aimual production. 

The derivatives are hydroxyethyl and hydroxypropyl cellulose. AH four derivatives find numerous appHcations and there are other reactants that can be added to ceUulose, including the mixed addition of reactants lea ding to adducts of commercial significance. In the commercial production of mixed ethers there are economic factors to consider that include the efficiency of adduct additions (ca 40%), waste product disposal, and the method of product recovery and drying on a commercial scale. The products produced by equation 2 require heat and produce NaCl, a corrosive by-product, with each mole of adduct added. These products are produced by a paste process and require corrosion-resistant production units. The oxirane additions (eq. 3) are exothermic, and with the explosive nature of the oxiranes, require a dispersion diluent in their synthesis (see Cellulose ethers). 

Prices of spandex fibers are highly dependent on thread size selling price generally increases as fiber tex decreases. Factors that contribute to the relatively high cost of spandex fibers include (/) the relatively high cost of raw materials, (2) the small size of the spandex market compared to that of hard fibers which limits scale and thus efficiency of production units, and (J) the technical problems associated with stretch fibers that limit productivity rates and conversion efficiencies. 

Quahty control iaspection is a post-, or at best concurrent, manufacture activity. The QC laboratory reports on ia-process and finished product quahty based on testing. Thus QC confirms whether a material has been manufactured in conformance. Sometimes QC also assists the production unit in salvaging process material or reworking off-standard finished product. 

Production and Economic Aspects. Aspirin is produced in the United States by The Dow Chemical Company, Rhc ne-Poulenc, and Norwich (a division of Proctor Gamble). Globally, Rhc ne-Poulenc has additional production faciHties in France and in Thailand. Bayer is self-suppHed from production units in Spain and Turkey over the years many small plants have been estabHshed around the world for regional or country supply. The aspirin market is increasingly globally suppHed. Aspirin is generally considered mature, and only population increases and new uses will affect its production and demand, which is thought to be of the order of 30—35,000 t for total world consumption. The May 1995 price was 8.30/kg (18). 

Lyondell and Sun Oil Co. are the main producers of benzene by disproportionation. Eiaa Oil Co. of Texas has developed the Eiaa T2BX process for toluene disproportionation usiag a proprietary catalyst. The new catalyst is claimed to reduce hydrogen consumption and is suitable for feeds containing small amounts of moisture (53). A commercial production unit was started up ia the fall of 1985. 

Dye Intermedia.tes, Dye intermediates are defined as those precursors to colorants that are manufactured within the dyes industry, and they are neady always colodess. Colored precursors are conveniendy termed color bases. As distinct from primaries they are only rarely manufactured in single-product units because of the comparatively low tonnages requited. Fluorescent brightening agents (FBAs) are neither intermediates nor tme colorants. Basic manufacturing processes for FBAs are described in Reference 18 (see Fluorescent whitening agents). 

The kieis aie of varying sizes and production units can handle from 225—1400 kg, adjusting proportionally the pump size and speed. Most machines are highly versatile so as to accommodate the kind of textile being dyed they are able to control rate of temperature rise, volume ofHquor flow, and time of dye apphcation. 

Process Safety Considerations. Unit optimization studies combined with dynamic simulations of the process may identify operating conditions that are unsafe regarding fire safety, equipment damage potential, and operating sensitivity. Several instances of fires and deflagrations in ethylene oxide production units have been reported in the past (160). These incidents have occurred in both the reaction cycle and ethylene oxide refining areas. Therefore, ethylene oxide units should always be designed to prevent the formation of explosive gas mixtures. 

Y Cumulative average cost, production /unit, hour/... 

Batch distillation, which is the process of separating a specific quantity (the charge) of a liquid mixture into products, is used extensively in the laboratory and in small production units that may have to serve for many mixtures. When there are N components in the feed, one batch column will suffice where N — 1 simple continuous-distillatiou columns would be required. 

Differences in materials of construction between the pilot unit and the production unit should be considered. These may have a bearing on caking, abrasion, and electrostatic effec ts. 

Feed to be sized is put into hindered-settling condition by hydraulic water in quantity only sufficient to teeter the smallest particle wanted in the coarse product. The finer fractions report to the overflow or pass into the upper column for removal in a three-product unit. 

Discs range in size from laboratory models 30 cm in diameter up to production units of 10 meters in diameter with throughputs of 100 ton/hr. Figure 20-82 shows throughput capacities for discs of varying diameter tor different applications and formulation feed densities. When scaling up from laboratoiy or pilot tests it is usual to keep the... 

In summary, the problem this book addresses is how to select a catalyst in laboratory experiments that will be the best for commercial processes and how to develop kinetic expressions both valid in production units and useful in maximizing profits in safe operations. 

Both reactors used 38.1 mm 0 tubes. The commercial reactor was 12 m long while the length of the laboratory reactor was 1.2 m. Except for the 10 1 difference in the lengths, everything else was the same. Both reactors were simulated at 100 atm operation and at GHSV of 10,000 h-1. This means that residence times were identical, and linear gas velocities were 10 times less in the lab than at the production unit. Consequently the Re number, and all that is a function of it, were different. Heat transfer coefficients were 631 and 206 in wattsWK units for the large and small reactors. 

---