Automated systems

Validation of automated systems must demonstrate a lack of contamination or interference that might result from automated transfer, cleaning, or solution preparations procedures. Equivalency between the results generated from the manual method and the data generated from the automated system should be demonstrated. Since sensitivity to automated dissolution testing may be formulation related, qualification and validation of automated dissolution equipment needs to be established on a product-by-product basis (8,13) (see also Chapter 12 for a more detailed description of automation issues). 

Regulatory changes in BE requirements (that move away from the in vivo study requirements in certain cases and rely 

Therefore, the development and validation of a scientifically sound dissolution method requires the selection of key method parameters that provide accurate, reproducible data that are appropriate for the intended application of the methodology. It is important to note that while more extensive dissolution methodologies may be required for bioequivalency evaluations or biowaivers (i.e., multiple media, more complex dissolution media additives, and multiple sampling time points), it is also essential for the simplified, routine quality control dissolution method to discriminate batch-to-batch differences that might affect the product s in vivo performance. 

Dressman JB, Amidon GL, Reppas C, Shah VP. Dissolution testing as a prognostic tool for oral dug absorption immediate release dosage forms. Pharm Res 1998 15(l) ll-22. 

Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and 

These robots (Fig. 6) perform wash procedures in an automated fashion, while reagents have to be added manually. To accelerate wash cycles, the aapptech Vanguard employs a multichannel pipette. For details, see Table 4. 

With the trend in dmg discovery towards smaller focussed compound libraries and the increasing importance of solution-phase techniques in parallel synthesis, fully automated systems may have lost some of their appeal. Nevertheless, a few instruments are on the market 

Material/shape Teflon block, cavities with frits polypropylene or glass syringes with frit 

Special features/comments reactive gas chemistry possible (rv can be pressurized up to 6 bar), with special pressure reactor Vulcan up to 105 bar multichannel pipette for solvent delivery reagent/solvent addition under stirring possible this is a light version of the fully automated SYRO 11 (see Table 5) 

Fully automated synthesizers perform both the addition of reagents and work-up procedures, such as solvent washes, automatically. Both self-contained benchtop systems and modular systems are available (Table 5). 

Methods for the interrogation of corrosion probes range from hand-held analog or digital meters to multi-channel dataloggers linked directly to microprocessor-driven data analysis units. The selection 

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A. Gurvich und G. Passi Comparison of non automated systems for the acoustic nondestructive testing of welded joints, Defektoskopiya, 1991, No 2, p 3-9 (in Russian)... 

The questions connected with exception of the subjective factor of process of an estimation of its results are considered by use of the automated monitoring systems. The principles of construction of the automated systems are shown on the basis of the unified imits, and also on a principle of self-training. The examples of the equipment, realized to the present time, are given. 

In an alternative procedure (84), the electrolyte is pumped through the cells at such a rate that the outlet concentration is 50 g/L MnSO and 67 g/L H2SO4. This spent electrolyte is then mixed with equal parts of make-up solution containing 150 g/L MnSO and the mixture returned to the electrolysis step. The electrolysis is continued over a period of days and terrninated when the EMD layer deposited on the anode reaches a specific thickness, usually on the order of 1—3 or 6—8 mm. Following completion of the electrolysis cycle, the entire electrode assembly is removed from the cell for removal of the deposited EMD, either manually or by an automated system (85). The product is repeatedly washed with water to extract the occluded acid (83) and dried at about 85°C in air. 

Automation and Control of Tests. Increased use of automated systems for controlling and analyzing inspection systems, processes, and... 

The Autovibron is the automated version of the Rheovibron (284). It can be purchased in automated form, or the automation system can be added later. Automation improves accuracy and productivity and eliminates the problems and operator dependence of results often associated with the manual instmment. Automation enables the Rheovibron to compete with the other commercial dynamic mechanical instmments. 

An automated system for clinical analysis consists of the instmment (hardware), the reagents, and the experimental conditions (time, temperature, etc) required for each deterrnination. The reagents plus the experimental conditions are sometimes referred to as the chemistry of the system. The chemistry employed is generally similar to that used in manual assays because most automated assay methods have been adapted from the manual ones. However, automated analy2ers rarely afford the flexibiUty of experimental procedure that is possible in manual analysis. 

Separate sample blanking requires an additional analytical channel, and is therefore wasteflil of both reagents and hardware. An alternative approach that is used on several automated systems, eg, Du Pont ACA, BM-Hitachi 704, Technicon RA-1000, is that of bichromatic analysis (5) where absorbance measurements are taken at two, rather than one, wavelength. When the spectral curves for the interference material and the chromogen of the species measured differ sufficiently, this can be an effective technique for reducing blank contributions to assay error. Bichromatic analysis is effective for blanks of both the first and second type. 

The creation and analysis of process flow sheets has become much easier because of the availabihty of automated systems to draw and revise them. The goal of the use of the flow sheet as the input for process simulation and for process control is likely to be achieved reasonably soon. The use of interactive graphic displays for process monitoring and control is pervasive today. 

Part 5 (Draft) Programmable logic controllers for safety applications (August 1998) VDIA DE 3542, Safety terms for automation systems. 

Foley, M. and Bernardon, E. 1990 Thenuoplastic Composite Manufacturing Cost Analysis for the Design of Cost-Effective Automated Systems. SAMPE Journal, 26(4), Cl-IA. 

Modern transducers and microprocessors have been used successfully to automate particulate sampling trains in order to eliminate the operating curves and manual adjustments (7). The automated samplers adjust continuously to maintain isokinetic conditions. In addition, the microprocessor continuously calculates and displays both instantaneous sampling conditions and the total sample volume collected at any given moment. The use of the automated system with the microprocessor, therefore, eliminates both operator and calculation errors. 

In the direct insertion technique, the sample (liquid or powder) is inserted into the plasma in a graphite, tantalum, or tungsten probe. If the sample is a liquid, the probe is raised to a location just below the bottom of the plasma, until it is dry. Then the probe is moved upward into the plasma. Emission intensities must be measured with time resolution because the signal is transient and its time dependence is element dependent, due to selective volatilization of the sample. The intensity-time behavior depends on the sample, probe material, and the shape and location of the probe. The main limitations of this technique are a time-dependent background and sample heterogeneity-limited precision. Currently, no commercial instruments using direct sample insertion are available, although both manual and h ly automated systems have been described. ... 

W. E. Petit and G. Horlick. Spect. Acta. 41B, 699, 1986. Describes an automated system for direct sample-insertion introduction of 10-pL liquid samples or small amounts (10 mg) of powder samples. 

When local or central computers are used for controlling the operation of HVAC installations in buildings, they are described as building automation systems. In the control station, operators communicate with control installations, which are connected through the computer plant. Computers for individual use are called personal computers (PCs). The use of PCs for technical and economic tasks in the past few years has increased considerably. The business overflows with PCs, which get greater data power and memory at lower prices. 

Building automation system Sometimes called building management system, a system that controls the mechanical... 

This form of implanned manual operation is unsatisfactory on a number of counts. The fact that the operator may normally be insulated from the process by the automatic control systems means that he or she will probably not be able to develop the knowledge of process dynamics ("process feel") necessary to control the system manually, particularly in extreme conditions. Also, the fact that manual control was not "designed into" the systems at the outset may mean that the display of process information and the facilities for direct control are inadequate. A number of techniques are available to assist designers in the allocation of function process. Some of these are described in Meister (1985). In a paper entitled "Ironies of Automation" Bainbridge (1987) notes four areas where the changed role of the human in relation to an automated system can lead to potential problems. These will be discussed below. 

An automatic control system is often introduced because it appears to do a job better than the human. However, the human is still asked to monitor its effectiveness. It is difficult to see how the worker can be expected to check in real time that the automatic control system is, for example, using the correct rules when making decisions. It is well known that humans are very poor at passive monitoring tasks where they are required to detect and respond to infrequent signals. These situations, called vigilance tasks, have been studied extensively by applied psychologists (see Warm, 1984). On the basis of this research, it is unlikely that people will be effective in the role of purely monitoring an automated system. 

In 1990, Bushey and Jorgenson developed the first automated system that eoupled HPLC with CZE (19). This orthogonal separation teehnique used differenees in hydrophobieity in the first dimension and moleeular eharge in the seeond dimension for the analysis of peptide mixtures. The LC separation employed a gradient at 20 p.L/min volumetrie flow rate, with a eolumn of 1.0 mm ID. The effluent from the ehromatographie eolumn filled a 10 p.L loop on a eomputer-eontrolled, six-port miero valve. At fixed intervals, the loop material was flushed over the anode end of the CZE eapillary, allowing eleetrokinetie injeetions to be made into the seeond dimension from the first. 

In principle, on-line SPE-LC can be automated quite easily as well, for instance, by using Such programmable on-line SPE instrumentation as the Prospekt (Spark Holland) or the OSP-2 (Merck) which have the capability to switch to a fresh disposable pre-column for every sample. Several relevant applications in the biomedical field have been described in which these devices have been used. Eor example, a fully automated system comprising an autosampler, a Prospekt and an LC with a UV... 

Zebiihr et al. (29) developed an automated system for determining PAHs, PCBs and PCDD/Fs by using an aminopropyl silica column coupled to a porous graphitic carbon column. This method gives five fractions, i.e. aliphatic and monoaromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PCBs with two or more ortho-chlorines, mono-ort/io PCBs, and non-ortho PCBs and PCDD/Fs. This method employed five switching valves and was successfully used with extracts of sediments, biological samples and electrostatic filter precipitates. 

A complicated analyser system such as that described above can only be maintained if all of the valve-switching events are scheduled in the correct positions in the chromatogram. Mismatch of one of the events will cause (parts of) components to be directed to the wrong columns and thus possible misidentifications. Therefore, accurate determination and maintenance of the cutting windows are essential. This can only be accomplished in a fully automated system with accurate flow and temperature controls. Once these prerequisites are fulfilled, the system will operate unattended and produce results of high quality. The repeatabilities generally achieved are of the order of 1 % rel. 

Method development remains the most challenging aspect of chiral chromatographic analysis, and the need for rapid method development is particularly acute in the pharmaceutical industry. To complicate matters, even structurally similar compounds may not be resolved under the same chromatographic conditions, or even on the same CSP. Rapid column equilibration in SFC speeds the column screening process, and automated systems accommodating multiple CSPs and modifiers now permit unattended method optimization in SFC [36]. Because more compounds are likely to be resolved with a single set of parameters in SFC than in LC, the analyst stands a greater chance of success on the first try in SFC [37]. The increased resolution obtained in SFC may also reduce the number of columns that must be evaluated to achieve the desired separation. 

The systems used for ingredient weighing can vary from a totally manual system to a totally automated system where the ingredients are untouched by human hands. The critical role of the ingredient weighing system. 

There are a surprising number of computer-con-trolled systems in homes today, all acting independently to control heating, cooling, security, lighting, appliances, entertainment equipment and even coffee makers. Houses of the future will integrate all of these computerized functions into centralized home automation systems that will help optimize energy... 

Another of the principal functions of a substation is to provide the means to control and regulate voltages and power flow. These functions arc provided cither by feedback from an automated system or by remote instruction from the dispatch center using an array of devices and systems within the substation. 

Preplate etch and rinse tanks Koroseal-lined tanks for plating steps preplating and plating chemicals automated systems available. 

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