General information

In addition to the databases and general information provided throughout this book (Chapter 6, etc.) other examples follow  

CENBASE The database is available on CD-ROM, and contains the equivalent of over 150,000 pages of data, http //www.centor.com/ cbmat/ 

DART A diagnostic software expert system, developed by IBM, which is used to diagnose equipment failure problems. It is unique in that it does not hold information about why equipment fails. Instead, it contrasts the expected behavior with the actual behavior of the equipment in order to diagnose the problem. 

DATAPOINT Extensive laboratory equipment and research support services by Datapoint Testing Services, Ithaca, NY 14850 www. datapointiabs.com. 

DFMA Design for Manufacture Assembly provides determinants of costs associated with processes by Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc., Wakefield, RI www.dfina.com 

Submission of EPA Form R. the Toxic Chemical Release Inventory Reporting Form, Is required by section 313 of the Emergency Planning and Community RIght-to-Know Act (Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthoiizatlon Act of 1986), Public Law 99-499. The Information contained in Form R constitutes a report, and the submission of a report to the appropriate authorities constitutes reporting.  

Reporting Is required to provide the public with information on the releases of listed toxic chemicals from your facility to the environment during the past calendar year. Facilities must report the quantities of both routine and accidental releases of listed chemicals, as well as the maximum anrx unt of the listed chemical on-site during the calendar year and the amount contained in wastes transferred off-site. 

A completed Form R must be submitted for each toxic chemical manufactured, processed, or otherwise used at each covered facility as prescribed in the reporting rule in 40 CFR Part 372 (published February 16,1988 in the Federal Register). These instructions supplement and elaborate on the requirements In the reporting rule. Together with the reporting rule, they constitute the reporting requirements. All references in these instructions are to sections in the reporting rule unless otherwise indicated. 

The Toxic Chemical Release Reporting Form, EPA Form R, consists of four parts  

Most of the information required In Part I and all of the Information required In Part II of Form R can be filled In and photocopied and attached to each chemical-specific report. Part I must have an original signature on the certification statement and the trade secret designation must be entered as appropriate. You have the option to complete Part II for only the off-site locations that apply to the Individual chemical cited In the report g you can list all off-site locations that apply to all chemicals being reported and Include a photostatic copy of this Part II with each individual report. Part III must be completed separately for each chemical. Part IV provides additional space, if needed, to complete the information required by the preceding sections of the form. Include Part IV In your report, even it it Is blank. 

There are four major series of organophosphorus nerve agents. 

Qualitatively and quantitatively, compounds of silicon and oxygen are the class of substances of greatest importance in the earth s crust and mantle, in regard to both mass and variety of structural forms. 

In sihcon and oxygen compounds, Si has coordination IV or VI. The SiO/ tetrahedron is energetically quite stable, with mixed ionic-covalent bonds. 

Determination of electron density maps for the u-quartz polymorph establishes that the charge transfer between silicon and oxygen is not complete and that a residual charge of +1.0 ( 0.1) electron units (e.u.) remains localized on silicon, whereas a charge of —0.5 ( 0.1) e.u. is localized on each oxygen atom. The interpretation of this fact in terms of the bond ionicity is not as univocal as it may appear at first glance. 

However, starting from the same experimental evidence, Stewart et al. (1980) adopt the following definition of fractional ionic character  

According to Stewart et al. (1980), the fractional ionic character thus defined is in agreement with the value deduced from electronegativity theory for molecular orbitals. The energy of a generic atom A is defined as 

Bright field—Mainly used to examine thin sections of carbon black loaded samples, e.g., carbon black dispersion in thin films of rubber compounds. 

When the domain size is in the range of 1 fim to lOnm, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and/or transmission electron microscopy 

Samples in the SEM can be examined as is for general morphology, as freeze fractured surfaces or as microtome blocks of solid bulk samples. Contrast is achieved by any one or combination of the following methods  

Solvent etching—When there exists a large solubility difference in a particular solvent of the polymers being studied, e.g., PP/EP blends. 

In addition, the SEM can be used to study liquids or temperature sensitive polymers on a Cryostage. 

Each category will be reviewed, with the better sources being highlighted. 

This category provided general information forthe background of the industry and current process technology. The references tend to be broad but shallow in their coverage, their style being typical of an encyclopedia. 

References Gl to G5 were all chemical and process technology-type encyclopedias, providing the starting point for this report. They provided a very diverse coverage including the properties of nitric 

The most comprehensive reference in this group was undoubtedly Kirk and Othmer (Ref. Gl). It provided an excellent historical background into process development and market characteristics, and also provided a broad coverage of the physical and chemical properties of nitric acid, handling methods, and materials of construction. A warning on using this or other process encyclopedias is that much of the technology presented in the first five references has now been superseded. 

Large scale manufacture of synthetic ammonia is exclusively carried out with synthesis gas (Nj -i- 3H2 this 

Formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen in the Haber-Bosch process is favored by  

Promoters increase the activity, lifetime and temperature stability of the catalyst and reduce its susceptibility to poisoning. 

K2CO3 increases activity, decreases temperature stability AI2O3, Si02, CaO protect against presintering and thereby increases temperature stability CaO reduces susceptibility to sulfur and chlorine compounds 

The exothermic reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen occurs in the presence of suitable catalysts and results in volume reduction, the highest ammonia concentrations being obtained at the highest possible pressure and the lowest possible temperature. The upper limit for the applied pressure is determined by the cost of compression of the gas mixture and the cost of the high pressure plant. The reaction temperature is determined by the type and activity of the catalyst. The removal of ammonia from the reaction gas should be as complete as possible to favor the fresh formation of ammonia. Other important parameters are the contents of inert gas and oxygen compounds in the unreacted synthesis gas. 

Corrosion occurs in various forms and is promoted by a variety of causes, all related to process operating conditions to which equipment and support structures are subjected. It is a continuous problem that can lead to contaminated process streams. This subsequently leads to poor product quality and unscheduled equipment shutdowns, the consequence of which is reduced production, high maintenance costs, and equipment replacement costs. Minimizing corrosion is a key consideration for the designer and can be accomplished in two ways (1) proper material selection for apparatus, and (2) preventive nraintenance practices. Both of these approaches must be examined. 

Section 171.2 forbids the offer or acceptance of a hazardous material for transportation within the United States unless it is packaged, marked, and labeled in accordance with DOTs regulations. Special requirements for import and export hazardous waste shipments, including the clear and legible display of required specification markings on the package, are set forth in 171.12. 

Normally paints are also classified according to the nature of the principal binder and its associated film properties e.g., alkyd, acrylic, polyester, nitrocellulose, epoxy, and oil-based paints (see Chap. 2). The method of application, surface properties, and intended use are also utilized for classification [3.1]. Since the beginning of the 1980s environmental requirements have become increasingly important for two main reasons, especially in the case of paints with low material transfer (application) efficiencies (see Section 3.1.3)  

1) Avoidance of the use of toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic organic solvents 

2) Drastic and in some cases legally imposed reduction of solvent contents (see also Section 3.1.3) 

Typical examples of low-solids paints (solvent content usually 60 wt%) are  

1) Metallic (-effect) base paints for mass production of automobiles and touch-up finishes 

It has already been indicated in the Sect. 1.1 that the primary, secondary and higher-order ferroics are defined by the number of external fields necessary to switch the ferroic from one orientational state to another. In particular, the primary ferroics can be switched under the application of one kind of physical fields (magnetic, electric, elastic). Besides three mentioned types of primary ferroics, there are six more types of secondary ones, where the difference between orientational (domain) states thermodynamic potential (free energy) Ag is proportional either to square or to the product of external fields as it is shown in the Table 1.1. 

Free energy difference Ag Name of ferroic The example of ferroics 

For higher-order (third, fourth etc.) ferroics, the difference of domain states free energy should be proportional to the third, fourth etc. powers of external fields. In particular, for the ternary ferroics 

The main difference between primary ferroics and those of the higher orders is related to the fact, that at least one pair of the domains in the primary ferroics has opposite direction of order parameter, while the same pair in the higher-order ferroics can be induced by corresponding set of external fields. For example, in ferrobielectric, the domain pairs have the same orientations of polarization P, so that field-induced domain reorientation can be represented via induced polarization difference as follows  

The example substance here may be SrTiOs, which is widely known as incipient ferroelectric with ferroelastic phase transition at T Tc = 105 K [11]. The free energy difference of its 90°-domains is proportional to (833 — that corre- 

Water can contain radionuclides which may be of natural origin, e.g. potassium 0 or uranium and thorium and the members of their decay series. On 

As man has no sensory organ for emitters of radioactivity, and as these generally occur in extremely low concentrations and can be enriched from the water via the food chain to a level conceivably harmful to man and beast, highly sensitive methods for identification and measurement are 

Natural or synthetic radionuclides can occur in the dissolved state in 

There are several types of adhesives and sealants which require mixing of two components before application  

This is the first parameter to consider. In some cases, the pot life is long enough so that the two components may be kept from one to several horns before application, but in other cases the pot life may be only a few minutes and this requires a metering and mixing machine that prepares the mix immediately before application. When the pot life is very short (a few minutes), the flow rate of the mix must be large enough so that the mixed products may be evacuated and used before the mix could harden into the equipment. 

The pumps, metering, mixing and application systems must be adapted to the viscosity of both the components. The viscosities of the two components should be similar in order to get a good mixing effect a very liquid product could not be mixed efficiently with a very thick product. Rheology, of course, must be also adapted the products may be pseudoplastic, thixotropic but never dilatant (for these definitions, refer to Chapter 2 in Volume 1 Technical Characteristics of Adhesives and Sealants ). 

Before mixing, the fillers in the adhesives must be thoroughly remixed. Some system must be used to check that the mix has been made completely, for instance by using two different colours for the two components and then checking that the colour of the mix is even. 

Generally the two-component metering is volumetric. There are four types of 

The processing technique is largely to be adapted to the particular problem and the material under investigation. Scarcely more than 50 (xl of a solution of the substances, as far as possible in a volatile solvent, are applied to layers of normal thickness. Extracts must thus usually be appreciably concentrated and pre-purified. 

The commonest procedures are separations into hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds, followed by extraction in stages of the neutral and acid materials from suitably buffered aqueous solution using ether, chloroform or ethyl acetate [3, 55, 66, 67, 79]. 

It is sometimes especially difficult to separate chlorophyll and other plant colouring matter. A procedure which has proved helpful for prior purification of methanolic extracts, very rich in chlorophyll, is given here the extract is concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator, the residue taken up in a little dilute HCl (pH ca. 5) and this solution filtered through a short (1—2 cm) silica gel column [133], Pre-purification by chromatography with water in an atmosphere of acetic acid ([3], p. 508), if necessary on thicker (preparative) layers, is a promising but so far scarcely used procedure. 

Reference may be made to the possibility of separation into groups in neutral solvents ([1], cf. p. 478), the use of ion exchange columns [5] or of activated charcoal [9] for preliminary purification. Rotary evaporators with cylinders or ground glass centrifuge tubes of 10—20 ml capacity, are suitable for final concentration of the pre-purified extracts. 

Concentration is usually carried out to dryness, the residue taken up several (2—3) times with 1—3 drops of a volatile solvent and each solution applied with a 10 [il pipette. Aqueous solutions should be applied in a nitrogen atmosphere in order to keep the start zone small and to suppress decomposition through oxidation. Start zones which are too large may be closed up by brief preliminary chromatography in a strongly polar solvent (hke water-methanol (50 + 50)). 

FBTR (India) Fast Breeder Test Reactor 

BOR-60 (Russian Federation) Bystrij Opytnyi Reactor (Fast Experimental Reactor) 

CEFR (China) China Experimental Fast Reactor 

PFBR (India) Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor 

Polystyrene belongs to the group of standard thermoplastics that also includes polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride. Because of its special properties, polystyrene can be used in an extremely wide range of applications. 

Polystyrene is consumed at a rate of 16.7 Mt/yr worldwide, out of which 4.2 Ml/yr is used in Europe. The average growth rate of polystyrene consumption is 4 % worldwide and only 2.4 % in Europe. The annual polystyrene usage including the export demand of world regions in 2000 is listed in Table 4.1. 

In practice, three different types of polystyrene are distinguished. The transparent and brittle polymer is called general purpose polystyrene (GPPS), the white, non-shiny but relatively flexible, rubber modified polystyrene is called (high) impact polyst5Tene (IPS or HIPS). Expandable or foam polystyrene (EPS) is ihe third group to distinguish here due to its different production techniques. 

Other varieties worth mentioning are the resistant and productive Calabacillo and the Ecuadorian Amelonado varieties. 

Cacao beans are differentiated by their geographical origin, grade of cleanliness and the number of preparation steps to which they are subjected prior to shipment. Flavor beans come from Ecuador, Venezuela, Trinidad, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, while commercial beans are exported by the leading cacao-growing countries of 

West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon), and by Brazil (the port of Bahia) and the Dominica Republic. 

This work has looked at calculation principles for approx. 200 classic as well as modern randomly filled and stacked lattice packing elements, tube columns and structured packings of various types and sizes. Today, these packings are used not only in rectification in the vacuum and normal pressure range, but also in many areas of high-pressure rectification and high-pressure absorption as well as in waste-air and wastewater treatment and groundwater treatment. 

The design of these plants is based on the so-called SBD model, see Chap. 2, which can be used to determine the gas velocity at the flooding point for various types of internals, if the resistance coefficient of the dry packing is known. 

If the resistance coefficient ijr is known, it is also possible to calculate the pressure drop of dry and irrigated packings for different operating conditions. 

The law of resistance = f(Rey), see Chap. 3, is the basis for the entire fluid dynamic design of packed columns and for the calculation of the following parameters  

The limit of validity of the derived correlations was verified based on 32 mixtures with different physical properties, see Table 2-2. The experiments, which were drawn on 

ATV is a vehicle (unmarmed, not reusable) used to provide services to the International Space Station (ISS) and its crew for example, ATVs can transport equipment, provide a visitable, even habitable area once docked, contribute to control maneuvers of the ISS orbit, evacuate and destruct used equipment, etc. Five ATV models are anticipated, with launches every 18 months, with options for two additional models and project developments. The first model, called ATV-1 Jules Veme, has successfiilly completed the inaugural mission of March 8 to September 29,2008. 

These three spacecraft, although having different mission objectives, have been designed to share the most elements possible. 

The ATV s mission is broken down into several phases  

The histoiy is currently hmited to a single mission, which met all its objectives and which was particularly extensive with a large number of tests and demonstrations in orbit, including capabilities in degraded mode (simulated). Only three minor anomalies can be reported  

Although unmanned, the ATV must meet safety requirements  

For decades the largest companies specialising in pipe construction at world level have adopted automatic welding systems, immediately finding their choice rewarded. 

Different alternatives can be chosen when the conversion has to take place  

Both of those give good productivity and low repairing rate, but their respective advantages are  

which follows the natural development of the sector, has set up and has now sold for years to all companies in the sector a complete range of solid wires for pipe welding which covers the entire range of steels. 

Typical properties all-weld metal Yield stress 535 Mpa Tensile strength 600 Mpa Elongation 26% 

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The second line, however, has a strict format and contains general information about the user s name, the program used to generate this file, and the date and... 

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