Health sector

Therefore, if the desired indoor air quality goals are clearly defined, they will benefit the designers, health and safety professionals, manufacturers of control technology equipment, end users, and other experts who are responsible for maintaining a safe and healthy indoor climate. In conclusion, introduction of the target level process for industrial air quality will benefit both the health sector and the production sector. 

Stuer et al. [46] evaluated the presence of the 25 most used pharmaceuticals in the primary health sector in Denmark (e.g., paracetamol, acetyl salicylic acid, diazepam, and ibuprofen). They compared PECs with experimental determinations and they conclude that measured concentrations were in general within a factor of 2-5 of PECs. Carballa et al. [45] also determined PECs for pharmaceuticals (17), musk fragrances (2) and hormones (2) in sewage sludge matrix. For that purpose they used three different approaches (1) extrapolation of the per capita use in Europe to the number of Spanish inhabitants for musk fragrances (2) annual prescription items multiplied by the average daily dose for pharmaceuticals and (3) excretion rates of different groups of population for hormones. They indicated that these PECs fitted with the measured values for half of them (carbamazepine, diazepam, ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, roxithromycin, erythromycin, and 17a-ethiny I e strad iol). 

Table 4.14 Average price per item prescribed in the public health sector...

In contrast to this, the main objective of price regulation in Spain is to contain the pharmaceutical bill of the SNS.14 The Directorate-General of Pharmacy fixes the ex-factory price of each and every one of the presentations of the pharmaceuticals included in public health care. This authorized price is the maximum ruling price in both the public health sector and direct sales to the public in pharmacies. Laboratories can only make price increases above the maximum price fixed for each presentation when the government authorizes a general price revision. The markups of distributing wholesalers and pharmacists are also fixed by the authorities as a percentage over the exfactory price. 

In prescription, as in the other areas of clinical management, doctors - key decision-makers in the health system - are to be provided with the necessary incentives, information and infrastructure to take clinical decisions in a cost-effective way. When possible, appropriate personnel selection, valuing not only skills but also attitudes, can compensate for the characteristic weakness of incentives in the health sector. This focus on selection as an organizational... 

It is extremely difficult to forecast what the Spanish health system of even the near future will be like, particularly if it continues to be anchored in the dynamics offered today by national health services services as if they were just another administrative service, national implying a strong tendency towards uniformity and health denoting an intention that is not always translated into the best integration (for instance, between ultimate objectives and the provision of services, or between health sector policies and all the other economic and social sector policies). 

As we mentioned above, the health sector may easily remain stuck in the present status quo, and as such incapable of responding to the new needs of society. This can be attributed, among other reasons, to the very roots of universalism (benefits that tend to be presented as necessary for all), the short-term approach of health pohcies (which works against major changes), the customary corporatism of today s prevalent interests and the frequent use of health care as a political weapon in elections. 

The Health Sector (Food, Agriculture, and Pharmacy industries) has received the greatest impact of biotechnologies both, social and economical. Therefore, the chemical applications of biology to this sector have deeply contributed to that consolidation, leading the development of biotechnologies to a mature state. A list of biotechnological companies, exclusively associated to the Food and Pharmacy industries is included in Table 1. Those companies are not analyzed in this book and are only included for completeness purposes and to prevent the oil reader of useless search. 

Although fully devoted to the Health Sector, Biacore offers a set of services, which might be of great interest to developmental activities in other industrial areas. Then-focus is on systems for protein interaction analysis, which yield data on the interactions between proteins and other molecules. Protein functionality and the elucidation of reaction mechanisms play an important key role in the development and production of industrial processes. Currently, their products are used in antibody characterization,... 

Bachem produces biochemical and pharmaceutical compounds, and offers complementary services on a proprietary technology platform. Although, oriented to the Health Sector, it supports synthetic methods from customers for defined target structures up to the registration of new compounds. Consequently, R D activities are also a strong part of Bachem business that encourages collaborations with technology partners to produce new active substances. 

The N-Zyme Biotec business model unites three areas synergistically (i) strategic alliances in R D, (ii) a module-based services system for the manufacture and modification of proteins, and (iii) product development. Mainly oriented to the Health Sector, its capabilities could be extended to other industries. 

The current accessible information from this company do not show any records on BDS activities, the most recent recorded event correspond to 2000 activities. On November 14, 2001, their report announced a restructuring process of the Company s Scientific Advisory Board, replacing members with scientists and physicians with experience in cancer, production of therapeutic proteins, preclinical development and clinical trials. That indication for a new orientation and focus to the health sector did not last enough, and soon after, the company disappeared from the SEC (and any other financial) listing. 

Although, these capabilities can be directed to multiple products to target different markets (chemicals, agriculture, protein pharmaceuticals, and prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines) their activities are currently focused to the Health Sector. Within these markets, they are focused on specific high-value opportunities. 

Even if quantitative results are more often expected for wastewater quality measurement, qualitative information is of great interest, as is the case for other applications of the analytical sciences (in the health sector, the use of test kits and biodiagnostic systems leads to quick and useful information, often far from a classical analytical result). In fact, quantitative analysis gives the concentration not only of one substance, but also of a group of comparable substances (surfactants, PAH,...), and even the value of a specific (TOC, TKN,...) or aggregate (BOD, COD, toxicity,...) parameter. In this context, total indices are often proposed as parameters complementary to classical analytical results [1]. 

The third, and final, example originates from the health sector. 

The purpose of this book is to investigate public policy issues in pharmaceutical innovation. In Section II we first describe the important characteristics of prescription drugs. We emphasize that these characteristics deviate from the standard conditions in a competitive market. In Section III we discuss the current performance of the pharmaceutical market. In Section IV we investigate market failures that persist in allocating research and development (R D) resources and in the utilization of prescription drugs. In Section V we analyze the policy conflict between the economic and health sectors arising from pharmaceutical innovation. The final section discusses the structure of the book and the major content of the chapters. 

Innovation in pharmaceuticals can sometimes be consistent with public goals in both economic and health sectors. To the extent that technological change improves health and if R D is conducted in the country, innovation promotes employment and income-increasing goals as well. Also, a healthy population is more likely to make for an economically productive workforce. 

The purpose of this chapter has been to provide a broad, general overview of the role of the pharmaceutical industry in the economy and in the health sector, and to explore a number of problems arising from the industry s cost structure and from the traditional imbalance in the global markets for pharmaceutical products. 

Health reforms. In many low-income and middle-income countries, health sector reforms have led to insufficient public funding for health. 

Integrate medicines in health sector development Create efficient public-private-NGO mix approaches in supply delivery... 

Donor assistance and development loans such as bilateral aid and development loan/grants from development banks continue to provide for many countries sources of health sector financing, which can include funding for essential medicines, such... 

Health sector development is a vital government obligation. In a national health system, proper use of well known and newer essential medicines for priority health problems depends on certain minimal level of medical and pharmaceutical services. This includes inexpensive diagnostic test to confirm diagnosis, and well-informed trained clinicians, pharmacists, nurses and other health staff to help patients, especially those with chronic illnesses, to adhere to their treatments. An overall capacity strengthening of the health and supply systems is a pre-requisite to respond adequately to the increased medical and pharmaceutical needs of populations. 

Murray CJL, Lopez AD. Comparative assessments in the health sector. Geneva (Switzerland) World Health Organization 1994. 

Robert Steinbrook, Election 2008—Campaign Contributions, Lobbying, and the U.S. Health Sector, New England Journal of Medicine 357, no. 8, August 23, 2007, pp. 736-739. Also available online. URL http //content.nejm.org/cgi/content/ full/357/8/736. Downloaded April 7, 2009. 

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