Floras

The annual production of chromium (Cr) ores amounts to 10 million tons. Cr is used in the production of special steels in the metal-processing industry, for chromium coating in the galvanic industry, as a pigment and catalyst in the chemical industry, as a dye in the textile industry, for leather production in tanneries, and for the impregnation of products in the timber industry. The use of Cr-rich products has led to Cr accumulation in the environment. Local Cr exposure of soil and the environment can occur via sludge, water and air (Anke et al. 

Even after decades, the chromium emissions of a former cement plant induced a significant increase in the Cr content of wild and cultivated plants, without triggering phytotoxic nutritional damage in the flora, fauna and humans (Table 8.16). 

The influence of plant species on the Cr content of the flora has remained within moderate limits. The barks, tips of twigs and several perennial plant species which 

Anthropogenic exposures, geological origin Relative number 

During the past few decades there has been a rapid growth in the industrial demand for nickel. Nickel (Ni) is used in steel production, in alloys (e.g., for coins and domestic utensils), in electroplating, and in nickel-cadmium batteries. After a prolonged period of relatively level production, nickel output over the past two years has begun to rise as existing producers have expanded their output. Annual nickel production in the western world has risen by almost 4% to 678 000 tons, and a further increase of several percent is expected in the years to come (Seifert and Anke 1999). The prevalence of nickel allergy is about 10% for women, and about 2% for men (Lieden 1994). 

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The time taken to complete a base line study and EIA should not be underestimated. The baseline study describes and inventorises the natural initial flora, fauna, the aquatic life, land and seabed conditions prior to any activity. In seasonal climates, the baseline study may need to cover the whole year. The duration of an EIA depends upon the size and type of area under study, and the previous work done in the area, but may typically take six months. The EIA is often an essential step in project development and should not be omitted from the planning schedule. 

One particular common piece of legislation worth noting is the requirement for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to be performed prior to any appraisal or development activity. An EIA is used to determine what impact an activity would have on the natural environment (flora, fauna, local population), and will be used to modify the activity plan until no negative impact is foreseen. More details of the EIA are given in Section 4.0. 

Intestinal flora is a general term for the bacteria yeast and fungi that live in the large intestine... 

Some vitamin K is provided m the normal diet but a large proportion of that required by humans is produced by their intestinal flora... 

Animals caimot synthesize the naphthoquinone ring of vitamin K, but necessary quantities are obtained by ingestion and from manufacture by intestinal flora. In plants and bacteria, the desired naphthoquinone ring is synthesized from 2-oxoglutaric acid (12) and shikimic acid (13) (71,72). Chorismic acid (14) reacts with a putative succinic semialdehyde TPP anion to form o-succinyl benzoic acid (73,74). In a second step, ortho-succmY benzoic acid is converted to the key intermediate, l,4-dihydroxy-2-naphthoic acid. Prenylation with phytyl pyrophosphate is followed by decarboxylation and methylation to complete the biosynthesis (75). 

Cobalt is one of twenty-seven known elements essential to humans (28) (see Mineral NUTRIENTS). It is an integral part of the cyanocobalamin [68-19-9] molecule, ie, vitamin B 2> only documented biochemically active cobalt component in humans (29,30) (see Vitamins, VITAMIN Vitamin B 2 is not synthesized by animals or higher plants, rather the primary source is bacterial flora in the digestive system of sheep and cattle (8). Except for humans, nonmminants do not appear to requite cobalt. Humans have between 2 and 5 mg of vitamin B22, and deficiency results in the development of pernicious anemia. The wasting disease in sheep and cattle is known as bush sickness in New Zealand, salt sickness in Florida, pine sickness in Scotland, and coast disease in AustraUa. These are essentially the same symptomatically, and are caused by cobalt deficiency. Symptoms include initial lack of appetite followed by scaliness of skin, lack of coordination, loss of flesh, pale mucous membranes, and retarded growth. The total laboratory synthesis of vitamin B 2 was completed in 65—70 steps over a period of eleven years (31). The complex stmcture was reported by Dorothy Crowfoot-Hodgkin in 1961 (32) for which she was awarded a Nobel prize in 1964. 

In all antiseptic testing, it is recognized that skin and mucous membranes to which products ate appHed cannot be disinfected or sterilized but it is possible to significantly reduce the population of transient and resident pathogenic bacterial flora. AH in vivo test methods requite a deterrnination of the bacteria on the skin before and after treatment. Because of the normal variation in bacterial population of the skin of different people, a number of people must be tested in order to make a statistical analysis of the results. Different parts of the body are used for different tests. In aH of the tests the details of the protocol ate extremely important and must be strictly adhered to in order to obtain reproducible results. 

Many azo dyes, such as tartrazine (Section 4.04.4.1.3), are susceptible to reduction by bacterial reductases in the intestinal flora. Azo reduction is believed to proceed through a hydrazo intermediate that undergoes subsequent reductive cleavage of the nitrogen-nitrogen bond to yield the arylamine derivatives (B-80MI40406). 

In addition to reproductive effects, fish exposed to endocrine disrupters may have a decreased response to stress or decreased growth and metabolism which can affect their ability to survive, or to defend themselves against predators. All of these factors can affect the ability of the species to survive and to reproduce itself in sufficient numbers to maintain the stocks on which our commercial and sport fisheries are based. Not all fish species will be equally susceptible to the effects of endocrine disrupters. Selective sensitivity to such effects, especially those affecting reproduction, may well lead to major changes in the flora and fauna of some of our major aquatic ecosystems as the balance between fish, mammals, invertebrates and plants, and between predators and prey, is destabilised... 

Ingested plant metabolites, drugs and other compounds are processed both by the animal and by the microbial flora of the gut. The composition and activities of the gut microflora vary greatly from one animal species to another and have been very extensively reviewed." In true ruminants (sheep, cattle and deer) and in functional ruminants, such as camels and llamas, a mixed population of bacteria,... 

The production of reduced products like methane and ammonia by the gut microbial flora has important environmental consequences, as such compounds contribute to the chemical and biological oxygen demand. The detection of dissolved oxygen in the gut of piglets led to tests to show whether methane and other reduced products could be oxidized in the pig gut. The production of C-labelledCOj from C-labelledmethane has been demonstrated however, it is calculated that at most only a very small proportion of methane produced is likely to be oxidized using O 2 as electron acceptor. Methane may also be oxidized anaerobically, but only an extremely small amount of methane is likely to... 

N. Roland, L. Nugon-Baudon and S. Rabot, in Intestinal Flora, Immunity Nutrition and Health, ed. A. P. Siinopoulos, T. Con ing and A. Rerat, World Reviews of Nutrition and Dietetics, Karger, Basel, 1993, vol. 74, pp. 123-148. 

The level of antibiotic resistance of the gut flora of pigs has been found to be influenced by factors other than the inclusion of antibiotics in the diet " " such factors include the herd environment, history and the opportunity for cross-contamination. 

Water Flora and fauna, e.g. fisheries and shell beds... 

Land Danger to crops, flora and vegetation. Action may range from disposal of crops to merely monitoring the... 

Allochthonous flora Organisms that are not indigenous to the soil but that enter soil by precipitation, diseased tissues, manure, and sewage. They may persist for some time but do not contribute in a significant way to ecologically significant transformations or interactions. 

In future a third new group will be required, according to another preliminary statement published quite recently by a team of Australian chemists, Messrs. Hughes, Lahey, Price and Webb. They have isolated six alkaloids from three rutaceous species of that country, five of which have been definitely shown to be acridine derivatives. This appears to be the fiipst-fruits of a survey of the type referred to above, which is being carried out on the Australian flora under the auspices of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and several of the Australian Universities. ... 

FLEXOMER , resins (olefin copolymers), 69 Flexsys N.V., 144 FLORA , trifluralin, 69... 

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