Retailing

A decentralised marketing structure - direct marketing and specialist retail outlets - has predominated and only in the last two to five years have mainstream retailers begun to take a serious interest in stocking organic food. 

However, it is not only a question of increasing supply. As mentioned in section 4.3, an effective distribution network needs to be in place which can deliver increased supplies to the retail outlets. This can be especially difficult in countries where the organic supply chain is highly fragmented which creates a complex structure, making it very difficult to work efficiently with large amounts. 

Although they cannot compete with the supermarkets on volume, they offer a wider variety of products. A core group of consumers buy from these shops because of the unique services they offer, such as a less anonymous atmosphere and in some cases greater transparency than the supermarkets. They focus on product presentation and information and it is these service aspects that they need to emphasise if they are to compete with the supermarkets. 

Organic supermarkets offer an alternative to specialist organic shops by presenting organic food in an atmosphere with which most people are familiar. It remains to be seen, however, whether and to what extent the organic supermarkets will be able to expand the market as a whole. It has been suggested that only those who are specifically looking for 

Organic supermarkets have a greater chance of economies of scale than smaller retail outlets and, by offering a wide variety in one shop at lower prices to the consumer than smaller specialist outlets, they are able to compete with the supermarkets on convenience. 

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As of the year 1998, small quantities of sassafras oil are still being sold on retail shelves without any scrutiny. Usually in 1-4oz sizes. Anything larger is usually sold only through distributors and manufacturers. And as of 1998, the DEA has informed most of these distributors that they (the DEA) want lists kept or sales reported of most, if not all, sassafras oil purchases. Mind you it is not illegal to buy the oil. It s just that you will be put on a list if you do. The operative term here is Watched Substance . Solution have someone else buy it for you. 

The weighing and indicating elements may be incorporated into a single housing (as in the case of many bench and retail scales) or the indicating element may be remotely mounted... 

Handbook 44 defines five accuracy classes for scales in terms of the value of the scale division and the number of divisions. Class I appHes to precision laboratory weighing. Class II appHes to laboratory weighing (precious metals, gems, and grain test scales). Class III appHes to the majority of industrial and retail scales, and to all scales not specified in the other categories. Class III L appHes to vehicle, Hvestock, railway, crane, and hopper scales. Class nil appHes to portable scales used for highway weight enforcement. 

Table 1 is condensed from Handbook 44. It Hsts the number of divisions allowed for each class, eg, a Class III scale must have between 100 and 1,200 divisions. Also, for each class it Hsts the acceptance tolerances appHcable to test load ranges expressed in divisions (d) for example, for test loads from 0 to 5,000 d, a Class II scale has an acceptance tolerance of 0.5 d. The least ambiguous way to specify the accuracy for an industrial or retail scale is to specify an accuracy class and the number of divisions, eg. Class III, 5,000 divisions. It must be noted that this is not the same as 1 part in 5,000, which is another method commonly used to specify accuracy eg, a Class III 5,000 d scale is allowed a tolerance which varies from 0.5 d at zero to 2.5 d at 5,000 divisions. CaHbration curves are typically plotted as in Figure 12, which shows a typical 5,000-division Class III scale. The error tunnel (stepped lines, top and bottom) is defined by the acceptance tolerances Hsted in Table 1. The three caHbration curves belong to the same scale tested at three different temperatures. Performance must remain within the error tunnel under the combined effect of nonlinearity, hysteresis, and temperature effect on span. Other specifications, including those for temperature effect on zero, nonrepeatabiHty, shift error, and creep may be found in Handbook 44 (5). The acceptance tolerances in Table 1 apply to new or reconditioned equipment tested within 30 days of being put into service. After that, maintenance tolerances apply they ate twice the values Hsted in Table 1.

Scales are available in a variety of designs and configurations to faciHtate different weighing operations (7). The two principal categories are industrial and retail scales, and precision scales and balances. 

Industrial and Retail Scales. Scales using strain-gauge load ceUs predominate in this market segment, although mechanical and hydrauHc... 

The following are descriptions of some industrial and retail scales. 

The three principal domestic uses for rice in 1988 were direct food (61%), processed food (18%), and beer (20%). The direct food use figure includes the conventional white milled rice plus specialty rice products (parboiled, precooked, aromatic, brown, and prepackaged mixes) shipped directly from the rice mills. The specialty products account for approximately one-fifth of the direct food use. Approximately two-thirds of the direct food use rice is ultimately distributed to consumers through retail outlets and one-third through food service outlets. 

In 1989 the aerosol industry in the United States consisted of about 250 companies that ranged from propellant, valve, and overcap, manufacturers to contract product fillers and product marketers. The industry employed over 50,000 people in 1989 and retail sales amounted to over 10 biUion. 

There is more activity in dairy products than anywhere else in the food industry. Ice milk and fro2en yogurt, early leaders in the field, rose rapidly in sales then plummeted. Fat-free ice cream has been marketed, but final results are not yet available. Sales of these products have not cannibalized traditional ice cream (35). Standards for traditional ice cream call for a minimum of 10% butterfat. One fat-free ice cream product is prepared from nonfat milk (skim) and cellulose gum. Fat-free ice creams have encountered strong resistance in some segments of the retail trade. Retailers in Maine and New York, states with important dairy producing industries, refuse to sell such products (36). 

Feed mills include sales through feed stores and pet stores sales direct to some large retailers, veterinarians, larger kennels, and research faciUties and export. It is estimated to account for 40.3% of total dog food production plus 9.3% of caimed and dry cat food production. 

The third type of storage for anhydrous ammonia is pressurized storage without refrigeration. This is used at small terminals, ia some transport vehicles, and ia field appHcation equipment. For safety reasons, maximum allowable storage pressure ia vessels at retail locations and ia the field has been set at 1.83 MPa (265 psig) (8). This pressure is sufficient to prevent boiling at temperatures up to 46°C. Safety pop-off valves are provided to vent ammonia should higher temperatures be encountered. 

Market Trends of the 1990s. The United States spice market can be divided into three sectors based on appHcation industrial, ie, food processing and manufacture institutional, ie, restaurants, hospitals, schools, and military and retail. The food manufacturers and institutions account for almost 65% of U.S. spice usage, an increase from about 40% in the 1980s. Retail food outiets make up most of the remainder. 

Eresh fmit and vegetable packaging is often in bulk in a variety of traditional wooden boxes and crates, and cormgated fiberboard cases. At or near the retail level, bulk produce may be repackaged in oxygen-permeable flexible materials such as PVC, with or without a tray of foamed polystyrene. 

Aseptic processing systems have found wide use for packing juices and milk products for the retail market and for the bulk preservation of tomato paste and fmit sHces for use as ingredients. Further information on aseptic processing can be found in the Hterature (2). 

Essences generally are stored separately from the bulk concentrates for stabiHty, and their addition prior to retail packaging is essential to restoring much of the natural fresh flavor of the starting juice otherwise lost during processing. Unlike citms, which affords both an aqueous and an oil-phase essence, only an aqueous-phase essence is obtained for deciduous fmit. Virtually no essential oil is present in the peel or juice in the latter. 

AH motor fuel in the United States is manufactured by private companies. Many of these are vertically integrated. That is, the same company finds the cmde oil or buys it from a producing government, refines it into finished products, and then sells to independent retailers who specialize in that company s blended products or sells at company operated service stations. There are also a significant number of companies that participate in only some aspects of the business cycle such as refining or marketing. 

Aqueous solutions of propylene glycol display excellent antifree2e properties and are therefore valuable as low temperature heat-transfer fluids. For apphcations involving indirect food contact, heat-transfer fluids formulated with the USP grade product are preferred, since there could be inadvertent contact with a food product. These fluids are commonly used in the brewing and dairy industries as well as in refrigerated display cases in retail grocery stores. 

The Fair Packaging and Labeling Act does not apply to products used in professional estabHshments. Specifically, this means that these products are not required to have an identity statement or a Hst of ingredients. This exception, however, is limited only to those products actually intended for professional use. Products sold by the professional estabHshments to their customers for personal use are considered retail products and must be fully labeled as such. 

The Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, which uses the same definitions for dmgs and cosmetics as the Food, Dmg and Cosmetic Act, only has jurisdiction over retail products sold to the consumer for use at home. This condition exempts free samples and professional use products not sold to a consumer for personal use. 

Retail price in U.S. from fine chemical supply houses. Prices may be substantially discounted for larger quantities. 

Conduct Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment. Ahazardis any biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause an unacceptable consumer health risk. AH of the potential hazards in the food chain are analyzed, from growing and harvesting or slaughtering to manufacturing, distribution, retailing, and consumption of the product. 

P ck g ing. Dry milk is packaged ia large bulk or small retail containers. A suitable container keeps out moisture, light, and air (oxygen). For dry whole milk, oxygen is removed by vacuum, and an iaert gas, such as nitrogen, is iaserted ia the heat space. An oxygen level of <2.0% is required by U.S. standard for premium quahty. 

Since 1951, the majority of imported almonds have come from Spain and Turkey. Production of almonds in southern Italy has declined by neatly 50% owing to competition from Spain, the United States, and Turkey. Efforts have been made, however, to expand the ItaUan almond industry (155). The United States is a primary exporter of almonds. Shelled almonds are used primarily by candy manufacturers and nut salters. In-sheU almonds are sold as mixtures of the in-sheU nut through retail outlets. 

There are approximately 114 paint remover manufacturers in the United States. Among them are companies that speciali2e in the manufacture of paint removers only, paint and coating manufacturers that produce a line of paint removers, specialty products manufacturers, and other manufacturers of finish removers for unique or special appHcations. Each group of paint remover manufacturer can be divided into retail or industrial products. A Hst of U.S. paint remover manufacturers is given in Table 2. 

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