Protein carbohydrate

Glycoproteins or mucoproieins. Compounds of proteins with carbohydrates. All glycoproteins contain a hexosamine and usually sulphate, ethanoate and glucuronic acid. The carbohydrate-protein linkages are, in some cases covalent and in others of the salt type. Aqueous solutions of glycoproteins are extremely viscous. 

Chemists and biochemists And it convenient to divide the principal organic substances present m cells into four mam groups carbohydrates proteins nucleic acids and lipids Structural differences separate carbo hydrates from proteins and both of these are structurally distinct from nucleic acids Lipids on the other hand are characterized by a physical property their solubility m nonpolar solvents rather than by their structure In this chapter we have examined lipid molecules that share a common biosynthetic origin m that all their carbons are derived from acetic acid (acetate) The form m which acetate occurs m many of these processes is a thioester called acetyl coenzyme A... 

Biosynthetic Human Insulin from E. coli. Insulin [9004-10-8] a polypeptide hormone, stimulates anaboHc reactions for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats thereby producing a lowered blood glucose level. Porcine insulin [12584-58-6] and bovine insulin [11070-73-8] were used to treat diabetes prior to the availabiHty of human insulin [11061 -68-0]. AH three insulins are similar in amino acid sequence. EH LiHy s human insulin was approved for testing in humans in 1980 by the U.S. EDA and was placed on the market by 1982 (11,12). 

Compounded Flavors. Liquid or dry blends of natural or synthetic flavor compounds are called compounded flavors. Most commercial preparations are available as water- and oil-soluble Hquids, spray-dried and plated powders, emulsions, and carbohydrate-, protein-, and fat-based pastes. Compounded flavors are used throughout the food industry in confections, baked goods, snack foods, carbonated beverages, and processed foods (53). 

NAD and NADP are required as redox coen2ymes by a large number of enzymes and ia particular dehydrogenases (Fig. 6). NAD" is utilized ia the catabohe oxidations of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, whereas NADPH2 is the coenzyme for anaboHc reactions and is used ia fats and steroid biosynthesis. NADP+ is also used ia the cataboHsm of carbohydrates (2). 

Lipids differ from the other classes of naturally occuning biomolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids) in that they are more soluble in nonpolar to weakly polar- solvents (diethyl ether, hexane, dichloromethane) than they are in water. They include a variety of str-uctural types, a collection of which is introduced in this chapter. 

Extracellular matrix The surfaces of animal cells are covered with a flexible and sticky layer of complex carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. This complex coating is cell-specific, serves in cell-cell recognition and communication, creates cell adhesion, and provides a protective outer layer. 

Energy values of food can be estimated on the basis of the content of carbohydrate, protein, and fat ... 

To maintain constant weight, your daily energy input as calculated from the foods you eat. should be about 700 kJ (170 kcal) greater than output. The difference allows for the fact that about 40 g of protein is required to maintain body tissues and fluids. If the excess of input over output is greater than 700 kJ/day. the unused food (carbohydrate. protein, or fat) is converted to fatty tissue and stored as such in the body. 

This is the only function of maltase, but it is one that no other enzyme can perform. Many such digestive enzymes are required for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It has been estimated that without enzymes, it would take upward of 50 years to digest a meal. 

Synthetically produced or modified carbohydrate-protein conjugates are sometimes referred to as neoglycoproteins. The nomenclature for the carbohydrate-containing substituents in such structures is analogous to sequential oligosaccharide nomenclature (2-Carb-37.2)... 

Lindhorst TK (2002) Artificial Multivalent Sugar Ligands to Understand and Manipulate Carbohydrate-Protein Interactions. 218 201-235 Lindhorst TK, see Rockendorf N (2001) 217 201-238... 

Figure 15-1. Outline of the pathways for the catabolism of dietary carbohydrate, protein, and fat. All the pathways lead to the production of acetyl-CoA, which is oxidized in the citric acid cycle, ultimately yielding ATP in the process of oxidative phosphorylation.

Figure 16-2. The citric acid cycle the major catabolic pathway for acetyl-CoA in aerobic organisms. Acetyl-CoA, the product of carbohydrate, protein, and lipid catabolism, is taken into the cycle, together with HjO, and oxidized to CO2 with the release of reducing equivalents (2H). Subsequent oxidation of 2H in the respiratory chain leads to coupled phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. For one turn of the cycle, 11 are generated via oxidative phosphorylation and one arises at substrate level from the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate.

Table V. Determination of carbohydrates, proteins, uronic acids and 0-acetyl of Fractions from aqueous extractions from seeds of C. speciosa.

Toxic compounds polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides, chlorinated pesticides, dioxins, veterinary drug residues, hormone residues, aflatoxins, toxic compounds in shellfish. Compoimds of nutritional significance in foods vitamins, fat, lipids, carbohydrates, protein, energy-calorific value, proximates, dietary fibre, ash. Other compounds hormones in blood serum... 

The sinusoids transport both portal and arterial blood to the hepatocytes. The systemic blood delivered to the liver contains nutrients, drugs, and ingested toxins. The liver processes the nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals) for either immediate use or for storage, while the drugs and toxins are metabolized through a variety of processes known as first-pass metabolism. The liver also processes metabolic waste products for excretion. In cirrhosis, bilirubin (from the enzymatic breakdown of heme) can accumulate this causes jaundice (yellowing of the skin), scleral icterus (yellowing of the sclera), and tea-colored urine (urinary bilirubin excretion). 

The food, now in a liquid form known as chyme, passes through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum, where stomach acid is neutralized. There is wide variation in lengths of the components of the small intestine (i.e., duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) between individuals (Table 98-1). Most absorption of digested carbohydrate and protein occurs within the jejunum. Most fat absorption occurs within the jejunum and ileum. In the small bowel, breakdown of macronutrients (i.e., carbohydrate, protein, and fat) occurs both within the lumen of the gut and at the intestinal mucosal membrane surface. The absorptive units on the intestinal mucosal membrane are infoldings known as... 

It is debatable whether obesity is related to total calorie intake or composition of macronutrients. Of the three macronutrients (i.e., carbohydrate, protein, and fat), fat has received the most attention given its desirable texture and its ability to augment the flavor of other foods. Food high in fat promotes weight gain in comparison with the other macronutrients because fat is more energy-dense. When compared with carbohydrate and protein, more than twice as many calories per gram are contained in fat. In addition, fat is stored more easily by the body compared with protein and carbohydrate.23... 

Dietary consumption should be balanced in carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Several diet plans exist that promote weight loss through strict limitation or overabundance of only one macronutrient (e.g., low-fat, low-carbohydrate, or high-protein diets) however, overall energy consumption and expenditure will determine the amount of weight alteration. Consultation with a dietician is recommended when... 

Tea leaf, in common with all plant leaf matter, contains the full complement of genetic material, enzymes, biochemical intermediates, carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and structural elements normally associated with plant growth and photosynthesis. In addition, tea leaf is distinguished by its remarkable content of methylxathines and polyphenols. These two groups of compounds are predominantly responsible for those unique properties of tea that account for its popularity as a beverage. It must be noted that the chemical composition of tea leaf varies with climatic condi-... 

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