Some Definitions

Some basic definitions were introduced in Chapter 1 and those relevant to risk assessment are reproduced here. 

A hazard is the potential of a substance, activity or process to cause harm. Hazards take many forms inciuding, for exampie, chemicais, eiectricity and the use of a iadder. A hazard can be ranked reiative to other hazards or to a possibie ievei of danger. 

A risk is the likelihood of a substance, activity or process to cause harm. Risk (or strictiy the ievei of risk) is aiso iinked to the severity of its consequences. A risk can be reduced and the hazard controiied by good management. 

It is very important to distinguish between a hazard and a risk - the two terms are often confused and activities often caiied high risk are in fact high hazard. There shouid oniy be high residuai risk where there is poor heaith and safety management and Inadequate controi measures.  

Eiectricity is an exampie of a high hazard since it has the potentiai to kiii a person. The risk associated with eiectricity - the iikeiihood of being killed on coming into contact with an eiectricai device - is, hopefully, low. 

A number of key terms have been used throughout this book. This appendix provides a list of definitions that are in accordance with the outcome of a standardisation effort of the IFAC SAFEPROCESS Technical Committee. The definitions have been taken 

Definition A.l (Fault) A fault is an unpermitted deviation of at least one characteristic property or parameter of the system fi om an acceptable, usual, or standard condition. 

Definition A.2 (Failure) A failure is a permanent interruption of a system s ability to perform a required function under specified operating conditions. 

Definition A.4 (Symptom) A symptom is a change of an observable quantity from normal behaviour. 

Definition A.5 (Fault detection) Fault deteetion determination of the faults present in a system and the time of detection. 

2 PHARMACEUTICAL SOLID-STATE LANDSCAPE 1.2.1 Some Definitions 

FIGURE 1.2 A typical pharmaceutical solid-state landscape. 

Different crystalline structures of one substance (single- or multicomponent) are named polymorphs [9, 10]. Polymorphism, which exists as a result of different crystal packing of rigid molecules, is called a packing polymorphism. Conformational polymorphism is a more common phenomenon for typically flexible drug-like molecules and results from crystallization of different conformers of the same molecule. At a given enviromnental conditions (temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.) only one solid form is thermodynamically stable (lowest free energy), while all other forms are considered metastable. 

The solid-state complexity of a typical distribution of pharmaceutical solid forms was reflected in a recent analysis of 245 polymorph screens performed at Sohd State Chemical Information (SSCI) (http //www.ssci-inc.com) [11]. It was demonstrated 

2 Major Regularities in Extension of Molten Polymers 2.1 Some Definitions 

Rheological experiments with molten polymers are normally arranged to investigate into the homogeneous inertialess extension under isothermal conditions. 

Usually, investigations deal with uniaxial tension in a cylindrical sample which is easier to produce in experiments than other types of tension (see Fig. 2). In this case the strain velocity tensor is  

Parameters l0 - Initial length l - Post-extension length lr - Post-retardation length R0.R( , Rr-Respective radiuses of the sample 

In the cylindrical system of coordinates v, z, p (axis z is directed along the sample) components of velocity are expressed as  

The literature on colloidal metals is extensive and an adequate survey covering all aspects of their physical and chemical properties would require an interdisdpli-nary authorship of some size. This chapter reflects the predilections and limitations of the author and will concentrate on the chemical aspects of metal colloid science. Suffident physical discussion will be given to support the descriptions of the structures and spectroscopic properties of colloidal metals in the context of their chemical applications to catalysis. 

Prior to a profound discussion of the means of generating, characterizing, processing, and recycling macromolecules, some basic definitions and explanations should be provided. 

Aerosols are defined as relatively stable suspensions of solid or liquid particles in a gas. Thus aerosols differ from particles in that an aerosol includes both the particles and the gas in which they are suspended. However, while this is the rigorous definition of aerosols, one should note that the term is often used in the atmospheric chemistry literature to denote just the particles. 

Particles may be either directly emitted into the atmosphere or formed there by chemical reactions we refer to these as primary and secondary particles, respectively. The relative importance of primary and secondary particles will clearly depend on the phenomena examined, the geographical location with its particular mix of emissions, and the atmospheric chemistry. 

There are a number of properties of particles that are important for their role in atmospheric processes. These include, in addition to their number concentration, their mass, size, chemical composition, and aerodynamic and optical properties. Of these, size is the most important it is related not only to the source of the particles (see later) but also to their effects on health, visibility, and climate. 

Atmospheric particles are usually referred to as having a radius or a diameter, implying they are spherical. However, many particles in the atmosphere have quite 

Atterburg or International Std. Classification System -adopted by Internal Soc. Sci. since 1934 

A matrix B contains matrix elements by where i refers to the column of the matrix and j the row of the matrix. Thus, the three-dimensional square matrix is defined as follows, 

While matrices in this chapter are all square, there are also matrices with the number of columns not equal to the number of rows. Thus, there are column matrices (and row matrices). A column matrix has one column and a given number of rows. Thus, Y below is a column matrix 

Matrix multiplication is a defined operation. Given two matrices A and B, the product is C means 

To find the ij element of the product, one multiplies the ith row of A, term by term, with the jth column of B. To form the product of the two matrices, the number of columns of the first matrix must equal the number of rows of the second matrix. The inverse of B is called B-1. B-1 has the property that 

1 here is the unit matrix. It has unity in the diagonal elements (i = j) and zero everywhere else. The transpose of a matrix A is called A and is obtained from A by exchanging rows and columns. Thus 

In this section, frequent mention will be made of the following terms  

A membrane is a barrier that allows selective mass transport between two phases. It is selective since various components are able to pass through the membrane more efficiently than others. This makes membranes an appropriate means to separate a mixture of components. That is, a membrane is a permselective barrier between two phases that can be permeated owing to a driving force, such as pressure, concentration, or electric field gradient [18,19], The phases on either side of the membrane can be liquid or gaseous. 

Considering the basic material used for membrane production, membranes are categorized as organic, which are normally made of polymers, or inorganic, which includes membranes made of glass, metal, and ceramic [6-10], 

The Physical Chemistry of Materials Energy and Environmental Applications 

Considering the microstructure of membranes, they can be categorized as porous, which allow transport through their pores, or dense, which permit transport through the bulk of the material [19]. Porous membranes are classified as microporous, mesoporous, and macroporous (see Section 6.2). 

Different methods have been used to deposit microporous thin films, including solgel, pyrolysis, and deposition techniques [20], Porous inorganic membranes are made of alumina, silica, carbon, zeolites, and other materials [8], They are generally prepared by the slip coating method, the ceramic technique, or the solgel method (Section 3.7). In addition, dense membranes are prepared with metals, oxides, and other materials (Chapter 2). 

A first issue arises because the definition of biocidal product in the Directive is very general in scope. That definition is Active substances and preparations containing one or more active substances, put up in the form in which they are supplied to the user, intended to destroy, deter, render harmless, prevent the action of or otherwise exert a controlling effect on any harmful organism by chemical or biological means . 

From these it can be seen that, although the Directive uses the term biocidal , there is no need to kill the organisms, to be within scope. Thus amongst others, repellents and attractants are included. It is also worth noting that the definition of products uses the word intended , thus it is not strictly necessary to claim an effect on a label in order to be within the scope of this Directive. The authorities do, of course, recognise the difficulties of proving intention and some reference on a label will most likely be necessary. 

Two further definitions are needed here only to help understand some items referred to later. 

Low-risk biocidal product. A biocidal product, which contains as active substance(s) only one or more of those listed in Annex IA and which does not contain any substance(s) of concern. Under the conditions of use, the biocidal product shall pose only a low risk to humans, animals and the environment. 

Basic substance. A substance which is listed in Annex IB, whose major use is non-pesticidal but which has some minor use as a biocide either directly or in a product consisting of the substance and a simple diluent which itself is not a substance of concern and which is not directly marketed for this biocidal use. 

Wood is a porous material that eontains air and water as well as wood substances. As a result the weight of a pieee of wood is not constant. Wood loses or gains moisture depending on the environmental eonditions to which it is exposed. Further, the volume of a pieee of wood is not eonstant. Wood shrinks and swells as it loses and gains moisture. It is therefore essential to know how much water a piece of wood contains before attempting to determine any other property. 

Foresters and wood teehnologists define the moisture content of wood in terms of the initial weight of the pieee of wood and the final weight of the wood after oven-drying to constant weight at 103 + 2°C The difference in the two values is assumed to be due to loss of water by evaporation during drying. 

Original weight - oven - dry weight Oven - dry weight of wood 

It should be noted that the moisture eontent is expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight rather than as a pereentage of the original weight. There are a number of reasons for adopting what at first sight appears to be a eurious definition  

It follows from this definition that the original moisture content of a piece of wood, which weighed 0.6 kg initially and 0.4 kg after oven-drying at 103°C, is  

The first macromolecular substances which fotmd technical interest were based on chemically modified natural materials, for example cellulose nitrate (Celluloid) or crosslinked casein (Galalith). Only with the onset of industrialisation in the nineteenth century did these renewable raw materials become the limiting factor for further growth, and chemists began developing artificial macromolecules based on fossil carbon sources like coal, oil, and gas. Polymers like condensation products from phenol and formaldehyde (Bakelite) started the plastics age in 1910 and polymers of styrene or vinyl chloride were used since about 1930 and until nowadays as important plastics. Presently, worldwide more than 260 million tons polymers per year are produced and used as plastics, films, fibres, and synthetic rubber. 

More recently, so-called functional polymers with special physical or chemical properties have replaced other materials in many electrical or optical applications for microelectronic applications due to their electronic properties or have been used for biochemical purposes. 

To sum up, macromolecular science covers a fascinating field of research and technology, focused on the creation, the xmderstanding, and the tailoring of materials formed out of very high-molecular-weight molecules. 

For vibrational spectroscopists, energies of eigenstates are traditionally expressed in wavenumber units (v) or cm that is the number of wavelengths (X) per cm  

If an electromagnetic field or neutrons interact with a molecule or a crystal, a transfer of energy can occur only when Bohr s frequency condition is satisfied  

AE is the difference in energy between two eigenstates, usually expressed in cm units, h is Planck s constant, fi = h/lir, and w = 2 ttv. Thus, v is proportional to the energy of the transition. Most of the vibrational first-eigenstates occur in the range from 1 to 5000 cm and spectrometers commonly used for condensed matter studies operate with a resolution on the order of 1 cm . (High-resolution spectroscopy in the gas phase can go very far beyond this value, by several orders of magnitude.) 

Routine infrared spectroscopy measures the absorption of an incident radiation as a function of the frequency or, equivalently, of the energy transferred 

The neutron is a dimensionless particle whose kinetic momentum p is related to the de Broglie wavelength Xn as 

With the historical and frequently practical concept of the monosaccharides as the basic units from which all carbohydrates can be derived, the 

The aldohexose D-glucose in the open-chain Fischer formula (I), the Fischer-Tollens hemiacetal ring formula (II), and the Haworth formula (III). The numbering system is shown. 

A hexulose or ketohexose, fructose (IV). A glycoside with the common mixed full-acetal ring formula (V) and with the Haworth acetal ring formula (VI) R is an alkyl or aryl group. 

Polysaccharide X is large (greater than 8 and usually 100 to 2000) Oligosaccharides X is small (0 to 8) 

Disaccharide (biose), X = 0 Trisaccharide (triose), X = 1 Tetrasaccharide (tetraose), X = 2 Pentasaccharide (pentaose), X = 3 

In Chapter 5 we saw that, in terms of the Br0nsted-Lowry theory, acid-base reactions involve proton transfer. Another large and important group of chemical reactions, particularly in aqueous solutions, involves electron transfer these are referred to as oxidation-reduction (or redox) reactions. Redox reactions are involved (1) in photosynthesis, which releases oxygen into the Earth s atmosphere (2) in the combustion of fuels, which is responsible for rising concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (3) in the formation of acid precipitation and (4) in many chemical reactions in Earth sediments. 

Oxidation refers to a loss of electrons, and reduction to a gain of electrons. For example, an oxidation reaction is 

Since electrons cannot be lost or gained overall, oxidation must always be accompanied by reduction. Thus, Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2) together form a redox reaction 

Equation (6.1) is called the oxidation half-reaction and Eq. (6.2) the reduction half-reaction for the overall reaction Eq. (6.3). 

If substance A causes the oxidation of substance B, substance A is called the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Thus, in Eq. (6.3), Ag (aq) is the oxidant, because it causes Cu(s) to lose electrons (note that the 

This text handles the detector elements for the detection of infrared radiation in the atmospheric windows (3-5) pm (MWIR) and (8-14) pm (LWIR). Only intrinsic semiconductor devices are considered. 

Jaksic, Micro and Nanophotonics for Semiconductor Infrared Detectors, 

In this section, I will consider current leading types of detinitions of nationhood and explain why they do not satisfy either Cl or C2, and thus why they are incapable of providing the foundation for a framework of legal regulations that will be better than the status quo. 

Within the context of the EU manufacturing sector, the paints, coatings and printing inks industry represents a sizeable share of the overall chemicals industry. Throughout the 1990s, this segment accounted for about 6% of the chemical industry s total turnover, with a similar share in terms of total R D spending. As a matter of comparison, in 1998 pharmaceuticals and basic chemicals accounted for 38% and 31% respectively (Panorama, various years  

In terms of strategy, most companies have decisively adopted a core business approach. Within this core they struggle for global leadership. The recent slow down has enhanced this trend that was already quite visible, particularly in the US, around the mid 1990s. So, for example, in 1993 ICI Paints sold its powder coating business to Ferro, its automotive OEM unit to 

Source http //www. coatingsworld.com/ last accessed July 31 2003. 

In terms of industry structure, it is also important to bear in mind that traditionally a huge number of small and medium firms co-exist with the global 

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All petroleum energy products, as distinct and dissimilar as they can be, are subjected to the process of flame combustion. It is helpful at this point to bring to mind some definitions and general laws of thermochemistry. 

So as to make the individual sections self-contained, we have found it advisable to give some definitions and statements more than once. 

Both those methods look pretty equal to Strike. Still, Strike tends to think that the Method I looks like it s the best of the two. There are some definite advantages that this method has over the NaBHaCN one. But all in all, they look about even to Strike. It s great to have options though. Isn t it ... 

When a solid such as charcoal is exposed in a closed space to a gas or vapour at some definite pressure, the solid begins to adsorb the gas and (if the solid is suspended, for example, on a spring balance) by an increase in the weight of the solid and a decrease in the pressure of the gas. After a time the pressure becomes constant at the value p, say, and correspondingly the weight ceases to increase any further. The amount of gas thus adsorbed can be calculated from the fall in pressure by application of the gas laws if the volumes of the vessel and of the solid are known or it can be determined directly as the increase in weight of the solid in the case where the spring balance is used. 

In all other cases the quantity / calculated from the specific surface is a mean diameter. Unless there is some definite and detailed evidence as to particle shape, the simplest such diameter to aim at is the mean diameter obtained by substituting the measured value of A in Equation (1.79)... 

We recall some definitions which are useful in the work to follow. The smallest a-algebra containing all compact sets in r 9r is called the Borel a-algebra (Landkof, 1966). Any a-additive real-valued function defined on the Borel a-algebra which is finite for all compact sets B c r 9r is called a measure on 9r. Thus, for a measure p and a set A, the a-additivity means... 

A succession of numbers or terms that are formed according to some definite rule is called a sequence. The indicated sum of the terms of a sequence is called a series. A series of the form r o -1- — c) -1-... 

Nonreacdive substances that can be used in small concentrations and that can easily be detected by analysis are the most useful tracers. When making a test, tracer is injected at the inlet of the vessel along with the normal charge of process or carrier fluid, according to some definite time sequence. The progress of both the inlet and outlet concentrations with time is noted. Those data are converted to a residence time distribution (RTD) that tells how much time each fracdion of the charge spends in the vessel. 

Definition of Terms Following are some definitions that are useful in understanding the components of hazards and risk (CPQRA, 1989, pp. 3, 4). 

To distinguish between a review and an audit, some definitions will be provided. A review is a critical examination or evaluation of any operation, procedure, condition, event, or equipment item. Reviews can take many forms and be identified as project reviews, design reviews, safety reviews, pre-start-up reviews, and so on. The following discussion of the review process will deal with project reviews associated with capital projects and focus on the area of process safety. 

Some definitions in the proposal were not ineluded in the final standard, and some new definitions were added. 

Some definitions of key terms used in identifying optical conditions are reviewed... 

Some definitions of the different categories of FT boiler by approximate temperature and pressure follow ... 

It has been pointed out321-324 that the two groups of solvents differ by some definite structural features. In particular, ED, 1,2-BD, and 1,3-BD possess vicinal OH groups that can form intramolecular hydrogen bonds. For these solvents, the ability of the organic molecule to interact with neighboring molecules is reduced. This results in the possibility of a different orientation at the interface because of different interactions of the OH groups with the Hg surface.323 The different molecular structure leads to different dipolar cooperative effects. As a result, the dependence of C on the bulk permittivity follows two different linear dependencies. 

Thus, two interpretations based on two different concepts of the effect of temperature on dipole orientation have been put forward. The two views clash with each other on physical as well as chemical grounds. However, the view based on the correlation of Fig. 25 introduces chemical concepts that are absent in the other, which ignores some definite facts. For instance, although a value for dEa=0/dT is not available for Ga, the temperature coefficient of C is apparently small.905 Ga is universally recognized as a strongly hydrophilic metal. Therefore, according to the simple model of up-and-down dipoles, the effect of temperature should be major, which is in fact not the case. 

Each "tool" has a unique footprint or wear pattern that is a function of its diameter. This wear pattern is eonvolved with the topographic map of material to be removed to create the raster pattern with a dwell time at eaeh raster position. In some implementations, these dwell time methods work very well. A faetor of 10 improvement in surfaee figure is common for the ion beam and MRP methods but there are some definite issues as well. 

This reaction is said to be homogeneous if it occurs within a single phase. For the time being, we are concerned only with reactions that take place in the gas phase or in a single liquid phase. These reactions are said to be elementary if they result from a single interaction (i.e., a collision) between the molecules appearing on the left-hand side of Equation (1.7). The rate at which collisions occur between A and B molecules should be proportional to their concentrations, a and b. Not all collisions cause a reaction, but at constant environmental conditions (e.g., temperature) some definite fraction should react. Thus, we expect... 

As seen from Fig. 5, upon absoption of photons with the energy hv > Eg, an electron and hole centres are formed. They migrate to different sites on the PC surface, thus becoming spatially separated. Note, that what solid state physisists call surface electron and hole centers, in fact are some definite chemical species with strong reducing and oxidizing... 

The effectiveness of these forces differs and, furthermore, they change to a different degree as a function of the interatomic distance. The last-mentioned repulsion force is by far the most effective at short distances, but its range is rather restricted at somewhat bigger distances the other forces dominate. At some definite interatomic distance attractive and repulsive forces are balanced. This equilibrium distance corresponds to the minimum in a graph in which the potential energy is plotted as a function of the atomic distance ( potential curve , cf. Fig. 5.1, p. 42). 

In any field, certain definitions and language must be understood, and the field of catalysis is no exception. Thus we start with some definitions before describing organic reactions on surfaces. 

Before we continue explicitly discussing high-throughput techniques and examples in the polymer field, we will first provide some definitions that may be... 

There are many other possible notions of equivalence, depending on the underlying phenomena one wishes to nodel and study. In our later discussion of block structure and transformations to structured form we shall meet some definitions yet more rigorous than "strong equivalence" - notions of computational equivalence or structure preservation where one demands that not only the end result be the same but that the outputs be obtained in roughly similar ways. One stronger notion is total equivalence which only holds between always halting schemes. 

Now we are ready for some definitions. As before, one must define the base objects of the metalanguage, then the schemes written in the metalanguage, and finally the semantics, how a scheme computes a function under a given interpretation. The basic objects are ... 

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