Papilloma virus infection

There is no specific treatment for human papilloma virus infection (condylomata accuminata). Therapeutic modalities consist of chemically or physically destructive agents including the podo-phylllin (applied weekly as a 10% solution in benzoin) or the less toxic podophyllotoxin 0.5% (applied twice daily for three consecutive days every week for up to 4 weeks cure rates are generally <50% and relapses are common). For older lesions various surgical techniques are advocated that are beyond the scope of this contribution. 

Nucleic acid immunocytochemistry Nucleic acids, constitutive or foreign Nucleic acid antibody complexes Base sequence specific Localization of base-specific sequences on chromosomes, detection of human papilloma virus infection... 

Liposomes, a novel drug delivery system, are widely applied in the topical treatment of diseases, including vaginal diseases. Their applications in contraceptive systems for the intravaginal administration of progesterone and interferon-a (or metronidazole) for the genital papilloma virus infections were previously reported. 

Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder has been reported 4 years after pulsed cyclophosphamide therapy (50). However, the authors noted that other susceptibility factors, such as bladder diverticula and human papilloma virus infection, occurred in the intervening period and they speculated on the cumulative risk. 

There is not a widespread association between oral contraceptives and cancer. Combined oral contraceptives may increase the risk of cervical cancer by about twofold, but only in long-term users with human papilloma virus infection. There are reported increases in the incidence of hepatic adenoma and hepatocellular carcinoma in oral contraceptive users (perhaps a doubling in the risk of liver cancer after 4-8 years of use) but these are rare cancers and the absolute increases are small. 

The role of tobacco has been emphasized recently. Smoking seems to be an independent risk factor. There is evidence that penile malignancies are associated with human papilloma virus infection (HPV), particu-larlywith types 16 and 18, even though it is not possible to say on a scientific basis that cancer of the penis is a sexually transmitted disease (Bezerra et aL 2001). 

Cervical carcinoma is the third most common gynecological tumor, accounting for 2% of female cancers. The presence of a high-risk papilloma virus infection seems to be mandatory for development of a carcinoma. 

Cidofovir (Fig. 2) has been formally approved for the treatment of CMV retinitis in AIDS patients, where it is administered intravenously at a dose not exceeding 5 mg/kg once weekly during the first two weeks (and every other week thereafter). Cidofovir is also used off label for the treatment of human papilloma virus (HPV) infections (i.e., cutaneous warts, anogenital warts, laryngeal and pharyngeal papilloma), polyomavirus [i.e., progressive (i.e., multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML)], adenovirus, herpesvirus, and poxvirus (i.e., molluscum contagiosum) infections, where it can be administered intravenously (at a dose of < 5 mg/kg once weekly or every other week) or topically as a 1% gel or cream (De Clercq and Holy 2005). Especially in immunosuppressed patients (i.e., transplant recipients), local treatment of HPV-associated lesions has often yielded spectacular results (Bonatti etal.2007). 

There appears to be an increased risk for the development of cervical cancer among long-term users of oral contraceptives.1 Whether or not this increase in risk can be attributed directly to the use of oral contraceptives is uncertain, however. Data suggest that oral contraceptive users, on average, tend to have more sexual partners and use condoms less frequently, and as a result, this may increase their susceptibility to becoming infected with human papilloma virus (HPV), a known risk factor for cervical cancer. 

Mycobacteria of the Mycobacterium avium complex are implicated in disseminated bacterial infections in AIDS patients. RFLP studies followed by hybridization with radiolabeled probe specific for an insertion sequence in M. avium (IS 1311) have been useful for typing M. avium stains (R2). A variety of molecular techniques are available for the diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infection. In addition to PCR, a method based on the ligase chain reaction has also been found to be sensitive to the detection of C. trachomatis infection in urine specimens collected from male and female subjects (VI). The differentiation between low-risk genotypes of human papilloma virus (HPV 6 or 11) from genotypes of high... 

The presence of human papilloma virus (HPV) is associated with female genital tract diseases such as condyloma, Bowenoid papulosis, and cervical, vaginal, and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia and carcinoma. A general concern is the association of HPV with cervical cancer (Gl). The HPV consists of an icosahedral viral particle (virion) containing 8000 base pairs, a circular, double-stranded piece of DNA surrounded by a protein capsid. Viral replication takes place within the nuclei of infected squamous epithelial cells (H5). Following infection of epithelial cells, the viral DNA penetrates throughout the entire thickness of the epithelium, but intact viruses are found only in the upper layers of tissue. 

Cervical Cancer. In female AIDS patients, cancer of the cervix is observed with high frequency. Cervical cancer is a fairly common cancer in women, although it typically affects women of middle age or older. Infection with certain strains of human papilloma virus (HPV) that cause warts in the genital tract is an underlying cause of cervical cancer. 

The drugs described next are used in the treatment in a variety of viral conditions, including HBV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), human papilloma virus (HPV), and VZV. Some are also used in the therapy of HIV infection detailed information on the treatment of this disease is found in Chapter 51. 

An antisense oligonucleotide, ISIS 2105, is in clinical trials for the treatment of genital warts caused by the human papilloma virus. ISIS 2105 is designed for subcutaneous injection directly into the wart (Sterling, 1992). Antisense oligonucleotides for antiviral applications against infection by herpes and other viruses are also under development (Crooke, 1992b). 

See also Section 10. Carrageenan has been used for the microencapsulation of proteinsand probiotic bacteria. It has also been used as beads in the preparation of controlled release systems.Studies have shown that carrageenan compounds block infections by the herpes simplex virus human cytomegalovirus human papilloma virus Sindbis virus vesicular stomatitis virus and A combined k- and X-... 

The risk of cervical cancer appears to be increased slightly in OC users. OC users may get Papanicolaou smears more regularly so that early dysplasia is more likely to be recognized. They also tend to have more sexual partners. Pill use may also alter susceptibility to infection with human papilloma virus a known risk factor for cancer of the cervix. Women over 50 are at increased risk for heart and cerebrovascular disease. 

Butor et al. (1997) were able to detect and map Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) infected cells labelled by means of FISH in cervical condyloma biopsies using a cDNA probe conjugated with biotin and subsequent detection with FITC conjugated avidin. 

Epidemiological evidence points to a connection between long-term inflammation and the development of cancer that is characterized by dysplasia, hyperplasia, and sometimes irreversible cancer transformations. Nearly 15% of worldwide cancer incidence in humans is associated with microbial infection (Kuper et al. 2002). Chronic infections, with human papilloma virus or with hepatitis B or C viruses in immunocompetent human hosts, can lead to cervical and hepatocellular carcinomas, respectively. Infection with the human herpes virus can produce Kaposi s sarcoma in the skin. Karposi s cancers are seen more often in the IDS-compromised AIDS patients. After protracted inflammation, Helicobacter pylori can cause stomach irrita-... 

Viruses have been implicated in the development of at least two cancers. Infection with the human papilloma virus is a major risk factor for cervical cancer, and like any sexually transmitted disease, the cancer is more common amongst those who have had numerous partners and is almost unknown in nuns. But the most well-established link is between Burkitt s lymphoma and the Epstein-Barr virus (one of the herpes viruses) in African countries. In developed countries, this virus causes glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis), and the different progress of the disease in Africans is apparently due to an immune system that is usually suppressed through a long-term assault by malaria parasites like Plasmodium falciparum. 

There is an increasing incidence of anal SCC in the United States, and these tumors share some similarities with their uterine cervical counterparts including association with high-risk human papilloma virus (FIPV) infection. Similar to other sites such as the head, neck. 

In the field of prophylactic vaccination, a variety of vaccines has reached the market place during the past few decades. However, many attempts to prevent infectious diseases such as AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis - as well as infections caused by hepatitis G virus (HGV), human papilloma virus (HPV), herpes simplex vims or GMV - have failed. The reasons for this failure are the devious methods used by pathogens to outflank the immune system. 

Clinical trials are still few. Several of the earliest reported to date are only from the early 1990s. To illustrate, a treatment trial on genital warts induced by papilloma virus was reported (Anonymous A, 1993). An AIDS infection trial (Anonymous B, 1993) and an acute myelogenous leukemia test (Anonymous C, 1993) are also in the literature. 

The life cycle of DNA-DNA viruses is similar to that of a eukaryotic cell in that the genetic information is stored in the form of DNA. Moreover, RNA needs be synthesized before viral proteins can be made. The DNA viruses have a wide range of genome sizes. Some DNA viruses have small genomes of less than 10 kb (papilloma viruses that cause warts), some have intermediate-sized genomes of 40 kb (adenoviruses that infect the respiratory tract),... 

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