Production gas

The pressure prevailing in the liquids and gases occupying the pore volume in the reservoir rock. 

Liquid or gas pressure in the reservoir rock in excess of hydrostatic pressure. Abandonment pressure 

The reservoir pressure at which the production of the well is abandoned due to technical and economic conditions. 

A production method in gas condensate reservoirs whereby dry gas is injected into the reservoir to maintain the reservoir pressure and prevent condensation of hydrocarbons within the formation. 

Solids formed under pressure from liquid water and natural gas (even if the temperature is higher than 0 °C). These deposits may plug gas lines and, therefore the gas must first be dehydrated to remove them. 

2NaC10 — 2NaCl + 30 + 25.0 kcal (exothermic) 2KC10s — 2KC1 + 30 + 21,4 kcal (exothermic) 

These exothermic reactions are easily promoted by catalytic agents that depress the temperature of decomposition, but the evolved heat is insufficient for self-sustaining decomposition. A small amount of a fuel that furnishes no gas and is nonhazardous in mixture with chlorates—such as powdered iron or steel wool—is added, as well as barium peroxide, glass powder, and glass fibers. For respirable oxygen, the formation of chlorine and carbon monoxide must be completely suppressed. Compositions of this kind deliver about 40% of the diemical mixture as oxygen, or 280 ml/g at STP (Formula 201). 

Jackson and Bovard claim to avoid the dangerous heating up of the canister to red heat during use by means of a layer of potassium perchlorate. The low heat conductivity and the near zero heat of decomposition of the perchlorate into chloride and oxygen is the reason for the protective action—not a purported endothermic decomposition. 

Water is sometimes recommended as an additive during the mixing and pressing of chlorate formulas but, as pointed out in the quoted NRL report, any residual moisture contributes to formation of sodium chlorite (NaC102) and hypochlorite (NaOCl) and hence to chlorine formation. 

A somewhat different approach to the oxygen candle is described in a technical report, which also includes an extensive bibliography. This candle consists of lithium perchlorate with the addition of manganese powder and lithium peroxide (Formula 202). The yield of 

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The hydrocracking process is characterized by a very low gas production and a low LPG yield especially when operated for maximum distillates. Byproducts in this operating mode are ... 

When a customer agrees to purchase gas, product quality is specified in terms of the calorific value of the gas, measured by the Wobbe index (calorific value divided by density), the hydrocarbon dew point and the water dew point, and the fraction of other gases such as Nj, COj, HjS. The Wobbe index specification ensures that the gas the customer receives has a predictable calorific value and hence predictable burning characteristics. If the gas becomes lean, less energy is released, and if the gas becomes too rich there is a risk that the gas burners flame out . Water and hydrocarbon dew points (the pressure and temperature at which liquids start to drop out of the gas) are specified to ensure that over the range of temperature and pressure at which the gas is handled by the customer, no liquids will drop out (these could cause possible corrosion and/or hydrate formation). 

Routine production tests are performed, approximately once per month on each producing well, by diverting the production through the test separator on surface to measure the liquid flowrate, water cut, and gas production rate. The wellhead pressure (also called the flowing tubing head pressure, FTHP) is recorded at the time of the production test, and a plot of production rate against FTHP is made. The FTHP is also recorded continuously and used to estimate the well s production rate on a daily basis by reference to the FTHP vs production rate plot for the well. 

Before designing a process scheme it is necessary to know the specification of the raw material input (or feedstock) and the specification of the enc/procfucf desired. Designing a process to convert fluids produced at a wellhead into oil and gas products fit for evacuation and storage is no different. The characteristics of the well stream or streams must be known and specifications for the products agreed. 

These constants are dependent upon pressure, temperature and also the composition of the hydrocarbon fluid, as the various components within the system will interact with each other. K values can be found in gas engineering data books. The basic separation process is similar for oil and gas production, though the relative amounts of each phase differ. 

As a field matures, bottlenecks may appear in other areas, such as water treatment or gas compression processes, and become factors limiting oil or gas production. These issues can often be addressed both by surface and subsurface options, though the underlying justification remains the same the NPV of a debottlenecking exercise (net cost of action versus the increase in net revenue) must be positive. 

If gas export or disposal is a problem gas re-injection into the reservoir may be an alternative, although this implies additional compression facilities. Gas production may be reduced using well intervention methods similar to those described for reducing water cut, though in this case up-dip wells would be isolated to cut back gas influx. Many of the options discussed under water treatment for multi-layered reservoirs apply equally well to the gas case. 

Although many problems still remain to be overcome to make the process practical (not the least of which is the question of the corrosive nature of aqueous HBr and the minimization of formation of any higher brominated methanes), the selective conversion of methane to methyl alcohol without going through syn-gas has promise. Furthermore, the process could be operated in relatively low-capital-demand-ing plants (in contrast to syn-gas production) and in practically any location, making transportation of natural gas from less accessible locations in the form of convenient liquid methyl alcohol possible. 

Chlorine is produced as a gas that is used captively, transferred to customers via pipeline, or Hquefied. Liquid chlorine, of higher purity than gaseous chlorine, is either used internally by the producers or marketed. The percentage of U.S. chlorine gas production subsequently Hquefied has increased over the past ten years reflecting higher demand for high purity chlorine. This percentage was 60.7% in 1978 and 81.1% in 1987 (5). The majority of this chlorine is consumed captively. 

Secunda discharges no process water effluents. AU. water streams produced are cleaned and reused in the plant. The methane and light hydrocarbons in the product are reformed with steam to generate synthesis gas for recycle (14). Even at this large scale, the cost of producing fuels and chemicals by the Fischer-Tropsch process is dominated by the cost of synthesis gas production. Sasol has estimated that gas production accounts for 58% of total production costs (39). 

The technology of urea production is highly advanced. The raw materials requited ate ammonia and carbon dioxide. Invariably, urea plants ate located adjacent to ammonia production faciUties which conveniently furnish not only the ammonia but also the carbon dioxide, because carbon dioxide is a by-product of synthesis gas production and purification. The ammonia and carbon dioxide ate fed to a high pressure (up to 30 MPa (300 atm)) reactor at temperatures of about 200°C where ammonium carbamate [111-78-0] CH N202, urea, and water ate formed. 

Prior to methanation, the gas product from the gasifier must be thoroughly purified, especially from sulfur compounds the precursors of which are widespread throughout coal (23) (see Sulfurremoval and recovery). Moreover, the composition of the gas must be adjusted, if required, to contain three parts hydrogen to one part carbon monoxide to fit the stoichiometry of methane production. This is accompHshed by appHcation of a catalytic water gas shift reaction. 

The Winkler gasifier (Fig. 5) is an example of a medium heat-value gas producer which, when oxygen is employed, yields a gas product composed mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (43). 

Cmde gas leaves from the top of the gasifier at 288—593°C depending on the type of coal used. The composition of gas also depends on the type of coal and is notable for the relatively high methane content when contrasted to gases produced at lower pressures or higher temperatures. These gas products can be used as produced for electric power production or can be treated to remove carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons to provide synthesis gas for ammonia, methanol, and synthetic oil production. The gas is made suitable for methanation, to produce synthetic natural gas, by a partial shift and carbon dioxide and sulfur removal. 

Catalytic Processes. A second group of refining operations which contribute to gas production are the catalytic cracking processes, such as fluid-bed catalytic cracking, and other variants, in which heavy gas oils are converted into gas, naphthas, fuel oil, and coke (5). 

In 1991, there were approximately 418 sulfur production plants associated with oil and gas production in operation throughout the world. Approximately 86% of these plants were based on the Claus process, and there were 118 Claus units operating in natural gas processing faciHties (11). 

Natural gas production and transmission systems are complemented by underground storage systems. These systems provide the capabdity to respond to short-term gas demands which exceed the immediate production levels or transmission capabdities. They also provide an opportunity to sustain some production by refilling the storage areas when seasonal temperature variations lead to periods of reduced gas demand. In the United States in 1990, there were 397 storage pools having a combined capacity of 2.2 x 10 (1). 

Other experiments with Gibberellafujikuroi the fungus that produces gibbereUin, indicate that GA production is blocked by BAS 111. Very detailed and carehil experiments conducted with enzymes in ceU-free systems strongly support this mode of action, ie, using /-kaurene oxidase and cinnamate 4-mono-oxygenase isolated from pea apices and soybean suspension cells, and avanone-2-hydtoxylase and dibydroxypterocarpane 6-hydtoxylase from soybean suspension cells (31). 

W. Brake and A. L. Mossman, eds.. The Matheson Unabridged Gas Data Book, Matheson Gas Products, East Rutherford, N.J., 1974. 

Plants in the United States are basicaHy iodine producers and must extract the solutions from deep (between 2000- and 3000-m) weUs. The depleted solutions are reinjected for environmental reasons and maintain the pressure of the exploitation area. In Japan, on the other hand, iodine is mainly a by-product of natural gas production, and the weUs are less deep (about 1500 m). Depleted solutions are often discarded into the ocean. Costs associated with deep weUs are relatively high, reaching 1.7 to 2.0 x 10 in the United States and up to ca 0.7 x 10 in Japan. 

Operating parameters of this German plant, on the basis of one cubic meter of raw gas, iaclude 0.139 m O2, 0.9 kg briquettes, 1.15 kg steam, 1.10 kg feed water, 0.016 kWh, and 1.30 kg gas Hquor produced. Gasifier output is 1850 m /h and gas yield is 1465 m /t dry, ash-free coal. The coal briquettes have a 19% moisture content, 7.8% ash content (dry basis), and ash melting poiat of 1270°C. Thermal efficiency of the gas production process is about 60%, limited by the quaHty and ash melting characteristics of the coal. Overall efficiency from raw coal to finished products is less than 50%. 

Essentially all of the methane [74-82-8] is removed ia the demethanizer overhead gas product. High recovery of ethane and heavier components as demethanizer bottoms products is commonplace. The work that is generated by expanding the gas ia the turboexpander is utilized to compress the residue gas from the demethanizer after it is warmed by heat exchange with the inlet gas. Recompression and deUvery to a natural gas pipeline is performed downstream of the plant. A propane recovery of 99% can be expected when ethane recoveries are ia excess of 65%. 

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