Crude palm kernel oil

Fig. 2.6 a Under phase-contrast microscope, P(3HB) granules are observed as light-refracting granules in C. necatorU16. P(3HB) accumulation of 77 2 wt% was observed when cells were cultivated with crude palm kernel oil as the sole carbon source, b TEM micrographs of C. necator H16 cells exhibit P(3HB-co-3HV) inclusions as electron-transparent discrete granules. P(3HB-CO-3HV) accumulation was observed when cells were cultivated with palm kernel oil and sodium propionate... 

CPO crude palm oil, PAO palm acid oil, CPKO crude palm kernel oil, PKAO pahn kernel acid oil, PFAD palm fatty acid distillate, PS palm stearin, PO palm olein, WFPO waste frying palm oil Source Unitata Ltd. Gunstone 2002 Shahidi 2005 Lertsathapornsuk et al. 2008)... 

Value shown represents the quantity present at any one time Crude pedm oil Crude palm kernel oil... 

Jitputtii, J., et al., 2006. Transesterification of crude palm kernel oil and crude coconut oil by different soUd catalysts. Chemical Engineering Journal 116 (1), 61—66. Available at http //www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S 1385894705004122 (accessed 21.06.14). 

Crude palm oil used to be the main form of export in the past. With the establishment of refineries especially in Malaysia during the mid-1970s and 1980s, refined palm oil products have replaced the crude as the main form of palm oil export. A wide range of processed or semiprocessed products are exported, and these include the different fractions of processed pahn oil known as palm olein (liquid) and palm stearin (solid). The availability of refineries also led to the production of specialty fats products aimed at the confectionery markets. A similar trend has been seen in the export of pahn kernel oil. Palm kernel oil is a coproduct to palm oil produced at a ratio of 10-13 tons of palm kernel oil for every 100 tons of palm oil. Even the export of refined palm kernel oil has begun to decline as more is being used locally by the oleochemical industry that has been estabhshed in recent years. 

Refining of Other Palm Products. Beside crude palm oil, crude palm olein, crude palm stearin, cmde kernel oil, crude palm kernel olein, and crude palm kernel stearin can also be refined by either chemical or physical processes described before. The basic unit operations and processing conditions for crude palm olein and stearin are similar to those of palm oil. However, in refining palm kernel products, due to the virtual absence of carotenoids, the earth dosage required in the bleaching stage is lower, usually less than 1.0%. Furthermore, due to the presence of shorter chain (C8-C14) fatty acids, the deodorization temperature required is about 230-250°C. Typical achievable quality of RBD/NBD palm kernel oil is given in Table 34. 

The major producers of oil palm products are located in the equatorial tropics and include Malaysia, Nigeria, Indonesia, China, Zaire, and Cameroon (54). Palm fruit, when pressed, yields approximately 43% of crude palm oil and 57% of press cake, which consists of 35% pericarp (fiber) and 65% nuts. Palm nuts consists of 83% shells and 17% kernels, which, when pressed, yield approximately 50% of each of palm kernel oil and palm kernel cake (55). 

Crude and refined palm oils, refined palm kernel oil, and refined palm stearin of iodine value (IV) 35 and 41 are commercial samples obtained from various refineries around the Klang Valley region and used without any treatment. 

Table 3 shows the crystal polymorphic form and Avrami exponent observed for crude and refined palm oil and refined palm kernel oil at the isothermal ciystal-lization temperature indicated. An Avrami exponent of three was observed for all the temperatures for the three types of oil even though the crystal may be in different polymorphic form as in the case of crude and refined palm oils. 

Other tocotrienols (i.e., 3-, 8-) are also present (Syvaoja et al., 1986 Ong and Choo, 1997). Total vitamin E content in crude palm oil is between 600-1200 pg/g, while contents in palm oil fractions may be significantly smaller. Palm kernel oil has only <100 pg/g vitamers (Eitenmiller, 1997 Ong and Choo, 1997). Tocotrienols and tocopherols are concentrated up to eightfold in the palm fatty acid distillate compared with the crude palm oil, which enables extraction of vitamin E compounds from this by-product. 

Oils and fats have been important throughout human history not only for food, but also as lubricants, polishes, ointments, and fuel. The reaction of oils and fats with alkali (saponification) produces soap (salts of fatty acids) and glycerin. This chemical process was known to the Romans and continues to be of significant commercial importance. Today, tens of thousands of tons of soap are produced annually from tallow and plant oils. Tallow is a by-product of the meat industry, while the principal plant oils are dependent on extensive plantations—palm and palm kernel oils from Indonesia, Malaysia, and India, and coconut oil from the Philippines and Brazil. Twentieth-century chemists designed more effective synthetic, crude-oil-based surface-active agents (surfactants, e.g., sodium linearalkylbenzene-sulfonate or LAS) for fabric, household, and industrial cleaning applications, and specialty surfactants to meet the needs of consumer products industry such as milder skin and hair cleansers. 

Keywords Crude pahn kernel oil (CPKO) jS-oxidation Fatty acids Fermentation Lipase Malaysia Palm oil Plant oils... 

Crude pahn kernel oil (CPKO) which is derived from the kernel of the oil palm fruit consists of large amounts of saturated fatty acids such as lauric acid (C12 0) [ 48 %], myristic acid (C14 0) [ 16 %], and palmitic acid (C16 0) [ 8 %] (Loo et al. 2005). However, the concentration of unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic (C18 2) [ 2 %] is very low. It contrast, palm oil products derived from mesocarp such as crude palm oil (CPO) and palm olein (PO) are mainly composed of C16 0 and contain more unsaturated fatty adds such as oleic acid (C18 l), (C18 2) and trace quantities of Hnolenic add (C18 3) (Loo et al. 2005). Compared to palm oil products, soybean oil is rich in unsaturated fatty adds with C18 2 (54 %), C18 l (22 %), and C18 3 (8 %) as the major constituents while 10 % of the distributions are contributed from saturated fatty adds (Kahar et al. 2004 Loo et al. 2005). Nevertheless, soybean oil has proven to be a good carbon source for high cell density cultures. Since, CPKO contains lesser unsatuiated fatty adds, it conld become potential carbon feedstock for high cell density PHA prodnction. 

Palm oil is derived from the fruit of a palm tree, Elaeis guineensis. Various types of oils such as crude palm oil and crude palm kernel... 

Long-chain alcohols are produced both from oleo- and petrochemical feedstocks. The main oils and fats, which provide straight, even, and saturated or unsaturated chains, are coconut and palm kernel oil for C12-C14 fatty alcohols and tallow and palm oil for Cig-Cig alcohols. However, crude oil is used for the production of the synthetic fatty alcohol chains leading to mixtures of branched and odd alkyl chains. 

Starting materials for manufacturing are - fats and oils mainly ->tallow and - coconut oil. - Lard and - palm oil are substitutes for tallow, while - palm kernel oil is sometimes used instead of coconut oil. Foots , i.e., the crude soaps obtained from refining edible oils, can be used also to a limited extent (- fatty acids, - fats and oils). Normally, mixtures of 80% tallow and 20% coconut oil (imparts foaming) are used, which are refined, bleached or hydrogenated prior to - saponification. 

Surfactants can be produced from both petrochemical resources and/or renewable, mostly oleochemical, feedstocks. Crude oil and natural gas make up the first class while palm oil (+kernel oil), tallow and coconut oil are the most relevant representatives of the group of renewable resources. Though the worldwide supplies of crude oil and natural gas are limited—estimated in 1996 at 131 X 1091 and 77 X 109 m3, respectively [28]—it is not expected that this will cause concern in the coming decades or even until the next century. In this respect it should be stressed that surfactant products only represent 1.5% of all petrochemical uses. Regarding the petrochemically derived raw materials, the main starting products comprise ethylene, n-paraffins and benzene obtained from crude oil by industrial processes such as distillation, cracking and adsorption/desorption. The primary products are subsequently converted to a series of intermediates like a-olefins, oxo-alcohols, primary alcohols, ethylene oxide and alkyl benzenes, which are then further modified to yield the desired surfactants. 

Methyl Ester-Based Processes. The fatty methyl esters are produced predominantly by the transesterification of fats and oils with methanol in the presence of an alkaline catalyst under very mild reaction conditions.l5a,b They are used in the production of lauric-type (Cl2) alcohols. The short-chain fatty methyl esters (C8-Cl0), produced as by-products via the fractional distillation of crude lauric-type (coconut, palm kernel) methyl esters, are converted to fatty acids via acidic or alkaline hydrolysis (Fig. 36.12). The hydrolysis of short-chain fatty methyl esters by stream splitting or Twitchell-type processes is not very efficient because of unfavorable equilibrium constants.16a,b... 

Avrami Exponents and Polymorphic Forms of Crude and Refined Palm Oil and Refined Palm Kernel OiF... 

Crude oils may be up to 15% FFA, while refined oils will be <0.1%. Measurement of FFA is normally done by titration of an ether-ethanol solution of the fat with standardized aqueous sodium or potassium hydroxide, in the presence of phenolphthalein indicator (see ISO 660 1983). This method is very accurate, using the molecular weight of oleic acid (282) for all calculations. Accuracy is improved by using the average molecular mass of the fatty acids in the fat, calculated from the FA composition (e.g., for palm oil 256 is used, for palm kernel/coconut oil 200 is used). The results are expressed either as acid value the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize 1 g of the fat, or, FFA% the percentage concentration of oleic acid equivalent to the free acids present. 

Basic raw-material processors extract and refine crude oil into petrochemicals such as petroleum oil distillates including paraffins, benzene, and other basic aromatics and extract and convert natural gas into ethylene and propylene. Processors of oleochemicals extract and purify seed oils from palm, soybean, sunflower seed, palm kernel, and coconut, and render animal fats such as tallow to provide triglyceride oils with varying chain distributions. 

Coconut Oil (Unhydrogenated) occurs as a viscous, white to light yellow-tan liquid. It is obtained from the kernel of the fruit of the coconut palm Cocos nucifera (Fam. Palmae). The crude oil obtained by mechanically pressing dried coconut meat (copra) is refined, bleached, and deodorized to substantially remove free fatty acids, phospholipids, color, odor and flavor components, and other non-oil materials. Compared with many natural fats, Coconut Oil (Unhydrogenated) has an abrupt melting range, changing from a rather firm, plastic solid at about 21° or below to a liquid at about 21°. 

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