Trichloroethylene detecting

Hnaien M, Lagarde F, Bausells L, Errachid A, Jaffrezic-Renault N (2011) A new bacterial biosensor for trichloroethylene detection based on a three-dimensional carbon nanotubes bioarchitecture. Anal Bioanal Chem 400 1083-1092... 

Apart from added stabilizers, commercial grades of trichloroethylene should not contain mote than the following amounts of impurities water 100 ppm acidity, ie, HCl, 5 ppm insoluble residue, 10 ppm. Free chlorine should not be detectable. Test methods have been estabUshed by ASTM to determine the following characteristics of trichloroethylene acid acceptance, acidity or alkalinity, color, corrosivity on metals, nonvolatile-matter content. 

In contrast to mice, male rats treated with trichloroethylene by com oil gavage at 1,100 mg/kg/day for 3 weeks failed to exhibit histopathology in the liver, although enhanced hepatic DNA synthesis (175% of control) was detected (Stott et al. 1982). No treatment-related nonneoplastic lesions of the liver were described for male or female rats treated with 1,000 mg/kg/day trichloroethylene for 2 years (NTP 1988, 1990), with 1,097 mg/kg/day for 78 weeks (NCI 1976), or with 250 mg/kg/day for 52 weeks (Maltoni et al. 1986). Except for enlarged livers, liver effects were not reported in mice treated by gavage with trichloroethylene in com oil for 18 months at a dose of 1,978 mg/kg/day for males and 1,483 mg/kg/day for females (Henschler et al. 1984). Hepatic effects were not reported in mice treated by gavage with trichloroethylene in com oil at doses up to 1,739 mg/kg/day for 78 weeks (NCI 1976) or at 1,000 mg/kg/day for 103 weeks (NTP 1990). 

Immunological abnormalities were reported in 23 adults in Woburn, Massachusetts, who were exposed to contaminated well water and who were family members of children with leukemia (Byers et al. 1988). These immunological abnormalities, tested for 5 years after well closure, included persistent lymphocytosis, increased numbers of T-lymphocytes, and depressed helper suppressor T-cell ratio. Auto-antibodies, particularly anti-nuclear antibodies, were detected in 11 of 23 adults tested. This study is limited by the possible bias in identifying risk factors for immunological abnormalities in a small, nonpopulation-based group identified by leukemia types. Other limitations of this study are described in Section 2.2.2.8. A study of 356 residents of Tucson, Arizona, who were exposed to trichloroethylene (6-500 ppb) and other chemicals in well water drawn from the Santa Cmz aquifer found increased frequencies of 10 systemic lupus erythematosus symptoms, 5 (arthritis, Raynaud s phenomenon, malar rash, skin lesions related to sun exposure, seizure or convulsions) of which were statistically significant (Kilbum and Warshaw 1992). 

Absorption kinetic studies on fasted rats dosed by lipid-emulsion gavage revealed rapid appearance of triehloroethylene in the blood (typieally peaking at 15 minutes post-exposure) followed by rapid disappearance (Templin et al. 1993). Rats similarly dosed with radiolabelled trichloroethylene showed rapid serum albumin adduction which peaked at 4-8 hours, then decayed with a half-life consistent with that of albumin itself (Stevens et al. 1992). However, some of the detected radioactivity may have been due to trichloroethylene metabolites rather than the parent compound. 

Several studies of tissue distribution in humans after inhalation exposure to trichloroethylene report levels in the blood (Astrand and Ovrum 1976 Monster et al. 1976 Muller et al. 1974). Once in the bloodstream, trichloroethylene may be transported rapidly to various tissues where it will likely be metabolized. Trichloroethylene was detected in the blood of babies at birth after the mothers had received trichloroethylene anesthesia (Laham 1970), and detectable levels (concentrations not reported) have been found in the breast milk of mothers living in urban areas (Pellizzari et al. 1982). Post-mortem analyses of human tissue from persons with unspecified exposure revealed detectable levels of trichloroethylene (<1-32 pg/kg wet tissue) in most organs (McConnell et al. 1975). The relative proportions varied among individuals, but the major sites of distribution appeared to be body fat and the liver. 

Following dermal exposure, trichloroethylene has been detected in blood and expired breath in human studies (Sato and Nakajima 1978). Studies of distribution among other tissues after dermal exposure in humans and animals were not located in the available literature. 

Experiments demonstrate that oral absorption of trichloroethylene in animals is extensive and metabolism is rapid. A study of F344 rats which were fasted for 8 hours prior to oral dosing by gavage found a rapid appearance of trichloroethylene in the blood which peaked after 0.75 hours, while the peak concentrations of the metabolites trichloroethanol and TCA occurred at 2.5 and 12 hours, respectively (Templin et al. 1995). The same investigators also dosed beagle dogs and found that blood concentrations of trichloroethylene, trichloroethanol, and TCA peaked after 1, 2.5, and 24 hours, respectively. In both species, TCA concentration did not peak until well after the trichloroethylene concentration in blood was below detectable levels (Templin et al. 1995). 

Release of trichloroethylene also occurs at treatment and disposal sites. Water treatment facilities may release trichloroethylene from contaminated water through volatilization and air-stripping procedures (EPA 1985e). Trichloroethylene is also released to the atmosphere through gaseous emissions from landfills. The compound may occur as either an original contaminant or as a result of the decomposition of tetrachloroethylene. Trichloroethylene has also been detected in stack emissions from the incineration of municipal and hazardous waste (James et al. 1985 Oppelt 1987). 

Trichloroethylene has been detected in a number of rainwater samples collected in the United States and elsewhere (see Section 5.4.2). It is moderately soluble in water, and experimental data have shown that scavenging by rainwater occurs rapidly (Jung et al. 1992). Trichloroethylene can, however, be expected to revolatilize back to the atmosphere after being deposited by wet deposition. Evaporation from dry surfaces can also be predicted from the high vapor pressure. 

Data gathered from several sites near Niigata, Japan, between April 1989 and March 1992 showed elevated levels of trichloroethylene and other volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons in the winter (Kawata and Fujieda 1993). A rural site in this study had armual mean concentrations between 0.17 and 0.32 ppb, while four industrial sites had mean concentrations between 0.029 and 4.8 ppb. The average trichloroethylene level detected in samples collected from ambient air in the Norwegian Arctic between 1982 and 1983 was 0.007 ppb (Hov et al. 1984). Average concentrations of trichloroethylene in Alaskan Arctic haze between 1980 and 1982 were 0.036 ppb in winter and 0.007 ppb in summer (Khalil and Rasmussen 1983). 

Some elevated outdoor air levels of triehloroethylene reported are associated with waste disposal sites. Average trichloroethylene levels of 0.08-2.43 ppb were detected in ambient air at six landfill sites in New Jersey the maximum concentration was 12.3 ppb (Harkov et al. 1985). Levels between 3.0 and 3.2 pg/m (0.56 ppb and 0.60 ppb) were found at a distance of 0.5-1.5 meters above the surface of a landfill known to contain halogenated volatile organic compounds in Germany (Koenig et al. 1987). 

The concentration of trichloroethylene in the open oceans may be an indication of the environmental background levels in water. Levels in open waters of the Gulf of Mexico were below the detection level of 1 ppt (Sauer 1981). Average levels of 7 ng/L (7 ppt) and 0.3 ppt were found in the northeastern Atlantic (Murray and Riley 1973) and in Liverpool Bay (Pearson and McConnell 1975), respectively. 

A summary of U.S. groundwater analyses from both federal and state studies reported that trichloroethylene was the most frequently detected organic solvent and the one present in the highest concentration (Dyksen and Hess 1982). Trichloroethylene was detected in 388 of 669 groundwater samples collected in New Jersey from 1977 to 1979, with a maximum concentration of 635 ppb (Page 1981). Maximum concentrations ranging from 900 to 27,300 ppb trichloroethylene were found in contaminated wells from four states (Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and New Jersey) (Burmaster 1982). 

A possible source for much of the groundwater contamination is landfill leachate containing trichloroethylene. Trichloroethylene was the most commonly found chemical at NPL sites in New York State (Mumtaz et al. 1994). The compound was detected in leachate samples from Minnesota municipal solid waste landfills at levels ranging from 0.7 to 125 pg/L (0.7-125 ppb) and in groundwater near landfills at levels ranging from 0.2 to 144 pg/L (0.2-144 ppb) (Sabel and Clark 1984). Trichloroethylene was also detected in landfill leachate from a landfill in New Jersey at concentrations of up to 7,700 pg/L (7,700 ppb) (Kosson et al. 

Trichloroethylene has also been detected in ground water at the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory in Hanover, NH, where it was used as a refrigerant between 1960 and 1987 (Hewitt and Shoop 1994). In water collected directly after well instillation, the trichloroethylene concentrations were 0.044-180 ppm. 

An analysis of the EPA STORET Data Base (1980-1982) found that trichloroethylene had been positively detected in 28% of 9,295 surface water reporting stations nationwide (Staples et al. 1985). An analysis of 1,350 samples taken from 1978 to 1979 and 4,972 samples from 1980 to 1981 from the Ohio River system found a similar percentage of positive detections most positive samples had trichloroethylene levels of... 

Trichloroethylene was qualitatively detected in the soil/sediment matrix of the Love Canal waste site near Niagara Falls (Hauser and Bromberg 1982). Sediment concentrations were found to be <0.5 pg/kg (dry weight) (<0.5 ppb) near a discharge point for effluent containing 17 ppb trichloroethylene in Los Angeles (Gossett et al. 1983). 

Trichloroethylene has been detected in dairy products (milk, cheese, butter) at 0.3-10 pg/kg (0.3-10 ppb), meat (English beef) at 12-16 ppb, oils and fats at 0-19 ppb, beverages (canned fruit drink, light ale, instant coffee, tea, wine) at 0.02-60 ppb, fruits and vegetables (potatoes, apples, pears, tomatoes) at 0-5 ppb, and fresh bread at 7 ppb (McConnell et al. 1975). Samples obtained from a food processor in Pennsylvania contained trichloroethylene concentrations of 68 ppb in plant tap water, 28 ppb in Chinese-style sauce,... 

An analysis of six municipal solid waste samples from Hamburg, Germany, revealed levels of trichloroethylene ranging from undetectable to 0.59 mg/kg (Deipser and Stegmaim 1994). In a study analyzing automobile exhaust for chlorinated compounds, trichloroethylene was not detected (Hasanen et al. 1979). 

Exposure Levels in Humans. This information is necessary for assessing the need to conduct health studies on these populations. Trichloroethylene has been detected in human body fluids such as blood (Brugnone et al. 1994 Skender et al. 1994) and breast milk (Pellizzari et al. 1982). Most of the monitoring data have come from occupational studies of specific worker populations exposed to trichloroethylene. More information on exposure levels for populations living in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites is needed for estimating human exposure. 

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the analytical methods that are available for detecting, measuring, and/or monitoring trichloroethylene, its metabolites, and other biomarkers of exposure and effect to trichloroethylene. The intent is not to provide an exhaustive list of analytical methods. Rather, the intention is to identify well-established methods that are used as the standard methods of analysis. Many of the analytical methods used for environmental samples are the methods approved by federal agencies and organizations such as EPA and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Other methods presented in this chapter are those that are approved by groups such as the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and the American Public Health Association (APHA). Additionally, analytical methods may be included that modify previously used methods to obtain lower detection limits and/or to improve accuracy and precision. 

Several methods are available for the analysis of trichloroethylene in biological media. The method of choice depends on the nature of the sample matrix cost of analysis required precision, accuracy, and detection limit and turnaround time of the method. The main analytical method used to analyze for the presence of trichloroethylene and its metabolites, trichloroethanol and TCA, in biological samples is separation by gas chromatography (GC) combined with detection by mass spectrometry (MS) or electron capture detection (ECD). Trichloroethylene and/or its metabolites have been detected in exhaled air, blood, urine, breast milk, and tissues. Details on sample preparation, analytical method, and sensitivity and accuracy of selected methods are provided in Table 6-1. 

Headspace analysis has also been used to determine trichloroethylene in water samples. High accuracy and excellent precision were reported when GC/ECD was used to analyze headspace gases over water (Dietz and Singley 1979). Direct injection of water into a portable GC suitable for field use employed an ultraviolet detector (Motwani et al. 1986). While detection was comparable to the more common methods (low ppb), recovery was very low. Solid waste leachates from sanitary landfills have been analyzed for trichloroethylene and other volatile organic compounds (Schultz and Kjeldsen 1986). Detection limits for the procedure, which involves extraction with pentane followed by GC/MS analysis, are in the low-ppb and low-ppm ranges for concentrated and unconcentrated samples, respectively. Accuracy and precision data were not reported. 

---