Injury estimation

Houston and Houston and Stairs did clonal repeatability analyses to determine genetic control of tolerance in white pine with an ozone-sulfiir dioxide mixture and a 6-h exposure. Th used needle elongation and two injury estimates in assessing effects. The repeatability estimates indicated that tolerance to the pollutant mixture is under genetic control. The nature of the inheritance of tolerance is still not understood, but field selection of tolerant or susceptible individuals is possible. Demeritt et reported an evaluation system that used... 

The largest single loss by fire or explosion ever experienced by the United Kingdom occurred June 1, 1974, as a result of an unwise plant maintenance modification. A total of 28 individuals lost their lives, 36 employees experienced injuries, and 53 nonemployees had recorded injuries. Estimated property damage was 63 million (U.S. 1976). [16]... 

Determination of LDH Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) catalyzes the equilibrium reaction of pyruvate to lactate. The activity of serum LDH is due to the presence of the enzyme released from damaged organs and tissues such as liver, heart, skeletal muscle, erythrocytes, etc. because LDH is located in the cytoplasm of the cells. Therefore, the activity of LDH is useful for screening for the existence of cell injuries, estimation of damaged tissues, and evaluation of treatment of diseases. LDH has five isoenzymes, and their patterns are of diagnostic importance. 

The magnitude of the social illness traffic safety is best displayed when looking at the global dimension. It is estimated that more than about one million people die each year in road traffic (about 1.24 million in 2010) and that between 20 and 50 million people suffer injuries [29]. (The range of injury estimates reflects differences in reporting systems and schemes between countries.) The total number of accidents is difficult to estimate [29]. Road traffic injury ranks number eight on the list of leading... 

Rational judgements about the acceptability of safety provisions for particular machines and processes can only be made when all the potential hazards have been identified, the likelihood of personnel exposure to these hazards has been assessed, and the extent of possible injuries estimated. Thus the long-term effectiveness of any safeguard depends intimately upon its detail design, and its compatibility with the operating procedures and function of the machine. 

Each year, Americans report over three million fires leading to 29,000 injuries and 4,500 deaths (1). The direct property losses exceed 8 biUion (1) and the total annual cost to our society has been estimated at over 100 biUion (2). Personal losses occur mosdy in residences where furniture, wall coverings, and clothes are frequently the fuel. Large financial losses occur in commercial stmctures such as office buildings and warehouses. Fires also occur in airplanes, buses, and trains. 

If possible comparisons are focused on energy systems, nuclear power safety is also estimated to be superior to all electricity generation methods except for natural gas (30). Figure 3 is a plot of that comparison in terms of estimated total deaths to workers and the pubHc and includes deaths associated with secondary processes in the entire fuel cycle. The poorer safety record of the alternatives to nuclear power can be attributed to fataUties in transportation, where comparatively enormous amounts of fossil fuel transport are involved. Continuous or daily refueling of fossil fuel plants is required as compared to refueling a nuclear plant from a few tmckloads only once over a period of one to two years. This disadvantage appHes to solar and wind as well because of the necessary assumption that their backup power in periods of no or Httie wind or sun is from fossil-fuel generation. Now death or serious injury has resulted from radiation exposure from commercial nuclear power plants in the United States (31). 

Toxicity of 2-Ghloroethanol. Ethylene chlorohydrin is an irritant and is toxic to the Hver, kidneys, and central nervous system. In addition, it is rapidly absorbed through the skin (73). The vapor is not sufficiently irritating to the eyes and respiratory mucous membranes to prevent serious systemic poisoning. Contact of the Hquid in the eyes of rabbits causes moderately severe injury, but in humans corneal bums have been known to heal within 48 hours. Several human fataUties have resulted from inhalation, dermal contact, or ingestion. One fatahty was caused by exposure to an estimated 300 ppm in air for 2.25 hours. In another fatal case, autopsy revealed pulmonary edema and damage to the Hver, kidneys, and brain (73). 

Another way to evaluate risks is to calculate the sensitivity of the total risk estimates to changes in assumptions, frequencies, or consequences. Risk analysts tend to be conservative in their assumptions and calculations, and the cumulative effect of this conservatism may be a substantial overestimation of risk. For example, always assuming that short-term exposure to chemical concentrations above some threshold limit value will cause serious injury may severely skew the calculated risks of health effects. If you do not understand the sensitivity of the risk results to this conservative assumption, you may misallocate your loss prevention resources or misinform your company or the public about the actual risk. 

Another approach is to use government and private mortality and injury statistics. Calculated absolute risk estimates (the probability per year of a worker being injured or killed) can be compared to those de facto worker risk standards. For example, in the United Kingdom, industry and government alike are using the fatal accident rate (FAR, see Glos-... 

Injury to plants and vegetation is caused by a variety of factors, of which air pollution is only one. Drought, too much water, heat and cold, hail, insects, animals, disease, and poor soil conditions are some of the other causes of plant injury and possible plant damage (3). Estimates suggest that less than 5% of total crop losses are related to air pollution. Air pollution has a much greater impact on some geographic areas and crops than others. Crop failure can be caused by fumigation from a local air pollution source or by more widespread and more frequent exposure to adverse levels of pollution. 

After the hazard assessment has been conducted and the data has been collected, it should be organized in a logical outline that will estimate the potential for employee injury The organized data will help to decide the type of hazard(s) involved, the level of risk, and the seriousness of potential injury The appropriate levels of PPE are then selected based on the hazard determination and the availability of PPE. The user should be properly fitted for the specified PPE, and the employer should make sure that it is comfortable to wear. Hazard reassessments should be conducted as necessary based on the introduction of new or revised processes, equipment, and accident experience, to ensure the continued suitability of selection of the proper PPE. 

The objective is to estimate, numerically, the probability that a system composed of many components will fail. The obvious question is, "Why don t you just estimate the failure rate of the system from operating experience " There are three reasons IJ the system may not exist, so new data are not available, 2) the injuries and fatalities from the developmental learning experience are unacceptable - the risk must be known ahead of time, and 3) by designing redundancy, the probability of the system failing can be made acceptably remote in which case system failure data caimot be collected directly. The only practical way uses part failure statistics in a system model to estimate the system s reliability. 

Determine Risk Potential. The objective is to determine the possibility of significant risk of injury to svcrkers or the public, or risk to the company s good name. It is done by bounding, consequence analyses and approximate frequency estimates, primarily for company protection. ... 

Protect Workers and the Public. The reasons may not be eniirely altruistic because worker injury is detrimental to production. Furthermore, we are the workers and wish a safe working environment free of immediate or latent injury. This requires detailed analysis of the process systems to estimate frequency of failure and the consequences that could result. Generally if the workers are safe, the public is safe. 

The purpose of a scoping analysis is to determine, under worst case assumptions, if there is a risk that can cause injury, death or financial impact to the public, workers, company, or environment. The PSA begins by identifying the hazards, their physical and chemical properties, the confinement, conditions and distance for transport to a target, estimating the effects on the target, and comparing these effects with accepted criteria. 

The tlienual radiation intensity and tlie time duration of fires often are used to estimate injury and damage due to a fire. Various tables liave been compiled to set up criteria for fire damage to people and property. Table 7,3.1 shows a relationsliip between heat radiation intensity and bum injury, ... 

Risk iuialysis of accidents serves a dual purpose. It estimates tlie probability tliat iui accident will occur and also assesses the severity of the consequences of an accident. Consequences may include dmnage to tlie surrounding enviromnent, financial loss, injury to life and/or deatli. This Part of the book (Part IV) is primarily concerned witli tlie metliods used to identify liazards and causes and consequences of accidents. Issues dealing witli healtli risks have been explored in die previous Part (III). Risk assessment of accidents provides an effective way to help ensure eidier diat a mishap will not occur or reduces the likelihood of an accident. The result of die risk assessment also allows concerned parties to take precautions to prevent an accident before it happens. 

Cause-consequence analysis serves to characterize the physical effects resulting from a specific incident and tlie impact of these physical effects on people, tlie environment, and property (causes are discussed tluoughout Cliapter 16). Some consequence models or equations (see Chapter 17) used to estimate the potential for dniiuige or injury fall into several categories. ... 

The reader should note tliat since many risk assessments have been conducted on the basis of fatal effects, there are also uncertainties on precisely what constitutes a fatal dose of thennal radiation, blast effect, or a toxic chemical. Where it is desired to estimate injuries as well as fatalities, tlie consequence calculation can be repeated using lower intensities of exposure leading to injury rather titan dcatli. In addition, if the adverse healtli effect (e.g. associated with a chemical release) is delayed, the cause may not be obvious. Tliis applies to both chronic and acute emissions and exposures. 

Risk is defined as tlie product of two factors (1) tlie probability of an undesirable event and (2) tlie measured consequences of the undesirable event. Measured consequences may be stated in terms of financial loss, injuries, deatlis, or Ollier variables. Failure represents an inability to perform some required function. Reliability is the probability that a system or one of its components will perform its intended function mider certain conditions for a specified period. Tlie reliability of a system and its probability of failure are complementary in tlie sense tliat the sum of these two probabilities is unity. This cluipler considers basic concepts and llieorenis of probability tliat find application in tlie estimation of risk and reliability. 

It has been estimated that up to 15% of head injuries may lead to AzD with dementia being common among boxers dementiapugilistica). Certainly such trauma is associated with diffuse amyloid deposits (not plaques) and a number of neurofibrillary tangles apparently identical to those in AzD. 

However, there are a significant number of cases, sometimes estimated as 19% of fractures, where repair does not occur in a reasonable amount of time. The problems are associated primarily with severe injury, infection, arthritis, or biochemical abnormalities. A very common cause, known as the compartment syndrome, is related to severe swelling pressure on the blood vessels that limits blood access to the muscles. In many of these cases, electrical stimulation has been shown to be effective in accelerating repair. 

Musculoskeletal disorders are commonly self-treated, so true estimates of the incidence of both acute and chronic injury are difficult to obtain. Musculoskeletal disorders, including arthritis, are among the most frequently reported health problems in the United States.5 These disorders account for a large portion of the utilization of health care resources and are the leading cause of work-related disability in all ages, including Americans aged 65 and over. 

Pressures sores, also known as decubitous ulcers or bedsores, affect 1.5 to 3 million Americans annually.35 The cost of healing pressure sores can be substantial, with current estimates ranging from 2000 to 70,000 per wound.35 Although the prevalence of pressure sores is highest in long-term care facilities, 57% to 60% of new pressure sores actually develop in the hospital, most commonly in intensive-care and orthopedic patients. Elderly patients and those with spinal cord injuries are most at risk36... 

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