Consequence measures

The size of the losses is an important parameter in making priorities on safety measures. Different types of scales are here appUed. Table 6.3 gives an overview. 

Common consequence measures such as LIT and RWI are easy to record but are insensitive to the actual size of the loss. An eye injury resulting in a few days of absence, and an amputation of an arm, are both recorded as a LTI. The number of days of absence better reflects the actual losses but is not readily available at the time when the accident is recorded. This is especially a problem in keeping accident records, when the duration of the sick leave extends over several recording periods (months, quarters, etc.). 

Environment Ratio Amount of release in m, tons, etc. by substance 

Material Ratio Losses in monetary unit (e.g. Euro or US ) 

Production Ratio Duration of production stop (e.g. hours) 

---

Although the consequences of the high-risk accident sequences may vary from one PSA to another, all PSAs attempt to evaluate realistically, the consequences of hypothetical accident sequences. Expending on the scope of the PSA, these evaluations may include an estimation of the number of latent cancers, the number of immediate fatalities, the probability of core damage, or a number of other consequence measures. 

This step takes the information from Steps 6 and 8. The frequency of an accident multiplied by the consequences is the risk. The consequences need to be in common units to get a measure of the risk. Of course, multiple consequence measures may be used and give multiple risk measures frequency of fatalities, frequency of injuries, frequency of fishkill, frequency of monetary loss. Judgment must be used to rank there relative significance. 

Benzie IFF Lipid peroxidation a review of causes, consequences, measurement and dietary influences. Int J Food Sci Nutr... 

Consequently, measurement of the impact of licensing and inspection on the final outcomes (quality of product and quality of use) is complicated by other factors. The question then becomes how can we measure the effectiveness of licensing and inspection Two approaches are possible a) checking whether the necessary structures for licensing and inspection activities exist or b) using indicators that provide information about the intermediate outcomes of licensing and inspection. 

Were costs and consequences measured accurately in appropriate physical units (e.g. hours of nursing time, number of physician visits, lost workdays, gained hfe-years) ... 

We have already seen from Example 10.1 that van der Waals forces play a major role in the heat of vaporization of liquids, and it is not surprising, in view of our discussion in Section 10.2 about colloid stability, that they also play a significant part in (or at least influence) a number of macroscopic phenomena such as adhesion, cohesion, self-assembly of surfactants, conformation of biological macromolecules, and formation of biological cells. We see below in this chapter (Section 10.7) some additional examples of the relation between van der Waals forces and macroscopic properties of materials and investigate how, as a consequence, measurements of macroscopic properties could be used to determine the Hamaker constant, a material property that represents the strength of van der Waals attraction (or repulsion see Section 10.8b) between macroscopic bodies. In this section, we present one illustration of the macroscopic implications of van der Waals forces in thermodynamics, namely, the relation between the interaction forces discussed in the previous section and the van der Waals equation of state. In particular, our objective is to relate the molecular van der Waals parameter (e.g., 0n in Equation (33)) to the parameter a that appears in the van der Waals equation of state ... 

XANES, including the absorption edge, offers a much stronger signal than EXAFS, and consequently measurements can be made with the absorbing element at lower concentrations. 

Probably the most important source of variability in the measurement of bone markers is biological variability. The consequences of the combination of analytical and biological variability are the values of critical differences of two consequent measurements. Only the changes in the concentration of the analyte higher than the value of the critical difference can be with certainty assigned to the condition of the disease, or the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of treatment. The values of critical differences can be calculated by the equation ... 

In this section we will describe how a proper accounting for film dynamics, based on a model of the thin-film/acoustic-wave interactions, can be used to quantitatively evaluate the shear modulus values as a function of temperature. As described in Section 3.1, an equivalent-circuit model can be used to relate the measured TSM electrical characteristics to the elastic properties, density, and thickness of a polymer film coating the device. Consequently, measurements made with polymer-coated TSM devices can be used to extract the shear elastic properties of the film. 

In polymer science, the ideal form of the thermodynamic equations is preserved and the nonideality of polymer solutions is incorporated in the virial coefficients. At low concentrations, the effects of the cl terms in any of the equations will be very small, and the data are expected to be linear with intercepts which yield values of and slopes which arc measures of the second virial coefficient of the polymer solution. Theories of poly mer solutions can be judged by their success in predicting nonideality. This means predictions of second virial coefficients in practice, because this is the coefficient that can be measured most accurately. Note in this connection that the intercept of a straight line can usually be determined with more accuracy than the slope. Thus many experiments which are accurate enough for reasonable average molecular weights do not yield reliable virial coefficients. Many more data points and much more care is needed if the experiment is intended to produce a reliable slope and consequent measure of the second virial coefficient. 

Considering the reaction between Ce(IV) and chloride ion, it appears that the observed formal potential of 1.28 V in 1 M hydrochloric acid is actually a mixed potential determined partly by the chlorine-chloride couple. Consequently, measured values of the potential cannot be used to calculate the formation constants of Ce(rV)-chloride complexes. From a practical analytical viewpoint, however, it is important that Ce(IV) can be used as a titrant for solutions containing up to 3 Af hydrochloric acid without loss of chlorine. 

Sorption to mineral surfaces (as opposed to NOM) is generally viewed as more of a displacement than a dissolution phenomenon. Because mineral surfaces tend to be more polar than NOM, sorption to the former is more substantial for polar and ionic compounds than for those that are more hydrophobic (Curtis et al., 1986 Chiou, 1998). Furthermore, since most NOM and mineral surfaces exhibit either a neutral or negative charge, sorption to soils and sediments is considerably stronger for pesticide compounds that are positively charged in solution—such as paraquat or diquat—than for neutral species, and weaker still for anions. As a consequence, measured values in soils exhibit little dependence upon pH for pesticide compounds that are not Brpnsted acids or bases (Macalady and Wolfe, 1985 Haderlein and Schwarzenbach, 1993). 

How is the rate of oxygen consumption and the KQ used to calculate the energy used by the body The connection between complete combustion of glucose (or fat) to carbon dioxide and energy is determined with a bomb calorimeter. The bomb calorimeter is a machine used for the combustion of various foods in on atmosphere of pure oxygen and, consequently, measurement of the heat produced. The amount of heat produced is expressed in joules. Any fuel — such as paraffin, methane, starch, pork, or beans — can be placed in the bomb calorimeter. A spark... 

Sustainability in chemistry is not only a qualitative target, but also a quantitative one, because chemical production has increased since 1930 from 1 million to 500 million tonnes per year in 2000. As a consequence, measures needed to reduce chemicals use in various branches are very important. One of these actions... 

Were costs and consequences measured in the appropriate physical units ... 

In Canada, a two-year study done by a multivendor team of healthcare professionals for the province of Alberta similarly characterized the current Canadian healthcare system to be provider-centric as opposed to patientcentric and to depend on episodic and illness-oriented (as opposed to wellness-oriented) fragmented services provided by the individual provider in a facility with very little coordination. As in the United States, the outcomes are consequently measured from the financial perspective rather than the clinical efficacy perspective. In Canada the multivendor team of healthcare professionals recommended that the healthcare system make the transition to a patient-centric, outcome-driven, and wellness-oriented system that provides integrated continuum of services with close coordination among the providers and institutions. 

The characterization of the uniform positive column is the more complete when n is so small that the luminous region extends radially to the wall of the containing tube except for a thin annulus, the Langmuir sheath (11), adjacent to the wall. The electron concentration is a maximum at the tube axis and sensibly zero at the gas-glass interface consequently measurements of the total current between the electrodes lead only to radial average values of je = Wne specified by... 

For a mechanical system three independent units suffice to define a complete unit system. Dealing with Lennard-Jones particles, it is convenient to choose mass, energy, and length. In that case the latter two are identified with the parameters and cr from Eq. 4, and m is viewed as the mass of the particle and set equal to one. Time is consequently measured in units of rLJ = Vm/e and temperature in units of dkB. Additionally treating electrostatic interactions requires a fourth unit, which here is chosen to be the positive elementary charge e0 = 1.60219 X 10 19 C. 

On the other hand, for fixed p, the polymer overlap increases with M the interval of p, corresponding to dilute solutions, becomes smaller and smaller. Consequently, measuring the osmotic pressure as a function of concentration cannot serve to determine the mass M of polymers with high molecular masses. 

In accordance with these definitions, stress-corrosion cracking has been a familiar problem in the petroleum and chemical industries for decades. Consequently, measures seem to be rather well established and generally known for preventing stress-corrosion cracking or for keeping it in check. Where conditions are such that this type of hydrogen attack can be expected, appropriate supplemental requirements should be included in the specification. A vessel built only to code requirements could be rendered unserviceable in a matter of hours by stress-corrosion cracking. 

Step 3 Selection of Consequence Measures Transportation risks arise from the release of hazardous materials as a result of accident- and/or non-accident-initiated events. The types of impacts that may be evaluated in a QRA include impacts to people, property, the environment, disraption of supply chain activities, and other financial concerns. 

Are the data accurate and detailed enough to justify predicting the desired consequence levels (e.g., fatalities, injuries, evacuations, environmental, economic) If there is not a very high level of confidence in the data, the analysis may need to adjust the consequence measure (i.e., from fatalities to number of people who might be evacuated), change the scenarios, or go back to a lower level of analysis. 

Step 1—selecting scenarios/issues for evalnation Step 2—collecting and evaluating data Step 3—selecting consequence measures Step 4—conducting the QRA Step 5— presenting results... 

---