Related work

In terms of related work, specifications by examples are surveyed in Section 3.1. Also, the notion of specifying property can be traced back to the notion of specifying axiom, and specifications by axioms are surveyed in Section 2.1. In this section, we only survey research on extending example-based specifications by another incomplete information source. 

Shapiro pointed out that the oracle of his Model Inference System (MIS, see Section 3.4.1) could be partly mechanized by the incorporation of constraints and partial specifications [Shapiro 82, page 79]. The idea is investigated by [Lichtenstein and Shapiro 88], whose system asks non-ground queries to an oracle. 

Shapiro s idea has also been picked up by [Drabent et al 88] they define four kinds of assertions that may be added to a specification by examples. These assertions describe approximate knowledge about the intended model of the specified program. These assertions are used for partly mechanizing the oracle of Shapiro s MIS. They constitute a possible instantiation of our notion of properties. 

Similarly, note that properties are totally different from background knowledge, as often used in concept-learning from examples. Indeed, properties partially define the predicate(s) that is (are) incompletely specified by the examples, whereas background information defines predicate(s) that is (are) different from the one(s) found in the examples. 

In this chapter, we have developed an approach for incomplete specifications that is based on the notions of examples and properties. 

We wish to conclude this section by referring to some related work. Our former student Wassenaar [37] has defined the fossil load factor as the percentage of fossil exergy input of the exergy of the final product. He calculated 9% for fresh potatoes from ecological agriculture and 13% from conventional agriculture, 64% for fresh French fries, and 80% for frozen French fries. 

Gerngross and Slater [38] asked the question how green are green plastics and show that in some cases less fossil energy is required per unit product if this is produced conventionally from nonrenewable resources than when it is produced from a renewable resource, such as com. 

Berthiaume et al. [39] introduce the so-called renewability indicator relating the work produced from solar energy to the work required to restore the degraded products from nonrenewable origin. Based on their analysis and making use of concepts such as the thermodynamic cycle, exergy, and exergy consumption, they conclude that the process to produce ethanol from com is not sustainable as it requires more work of restoration than is produced. 

A last conclusion is that thermodynamics as the ultimate accountant of the conversion and storage of energy and matter can provide the fundamental tools to assess to what extent an industry and even an economy is sustainable. 

Brundtland, G.H. Our Common Future, The World Commission on Environmental Development, Oxford University Press Oxford, U.K., 1987. 

Numerous approaches to scheduling have been reported in the literature ranging from simple local scheduling heuristics to sophisticated global approaches which try to balance performance against resource usage. This section discusses these approaches and compares them to the CSTEP scheduler. 

MAHA [Parker86] performs operator allocation and binding concurrently with scheduling and schedules operators on the critical path first. It then schedules operators depending on operator mobility (called freedom in this case) and resource constraints. 

The Yorktown Silicon Compiler(YSC) [Brayton87] takes a very different approach to global scheduling. The YSC schedules as many operations as possible into states, minimizing the total number of states. It then performs a separate state splitting task that divides operations in a state into two states to reduce the combinational logic delays in the longest states. 

CSTEP schedules operators into control steps one basic block at a time. Basic blocks are scheduled in execution order using an execution-order traversal of the control flow graph. This guarantees that when a timing constraint is expressed on two operators that are in separate basic blocks, the first operator in the constraint is scheduled before the second operator is scheduled. This leaves the second operator to be evaluated for placement in terms of how placement affects the constraint. The ordered scheduling of basic blocks also ensures that inter-basic block data dependencies will be satisfied. 

Fisher [FisherSl] describes the list scheduling algorithm as it is used in microcode compaction. CSTEP uses list scheduling with a number of modifications that support scheduling for synthesis. First, it supports primitive estimation of combinational delay. Second, it uses this estimation to support multiple cycle operators and cascaded operators. Third, it uses a modified priority function in which negative priority values force placement of operators to be delayed. 

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Related work is discussed in the section on poly(ethylene oxide) hybrids (40). 

Few mechanisms of liquid/liquid reactions have been established, although some related work such as on droplet sizes and power input has been done. Small contents of surface-ac tive and other impurities in reactants of commercial quality can distort a reac tor s predicted performance. Diffusivities in liquids are comparatively low, a factor of 10 less than in gases, so it is probable in most industrial examples that they are diffusion controllech One consequence is that L/L reactions may not be as temperature sensitive as ordinary chemical reactions, although the effec t of temperature rise on viscosity and droplet size can result in substantial rate increases. L/L reac tions will exhibit behavior of homogeneous reactions only when they are very slow, nonionic reactions being the most likely ones. On the whole, in the present state of the art, the design of L/L reactors must depend on scale-up from laboratoiy or pilot plant work. 

M. Rajic, T. Riill and G. Ourisson, Bull. Soc. Chim. France, 1961, 1213 see also British Patent 948,545 (1964), and Belgian Patent 612,592 (1962) for related work. 

In related work fluorine reacts with iodine in fluorotnchloromethane, and the iodine lluonde thus fonned adds the elements of iodine and fluorine to olefins at -78 °C with full regio and stereoselectivity [67] Bromine-fluonnc on the other hand. 

In related work, 3-chloromethylcephems were coupled with tributyl(tnfluoro-vinyl)stannane catalyzed by tri(2-furyl)phosphine palladium(O) [7S, 19] (equation 13). 

In related work, palladium, nickel, or methyl viologen (MV ) were used to catalyze the conversion of perfluoroalkyl iodides to a-perfluoroalkyl carbinols in the presence of zinc [43, 44] (equations 32 and 33) Only aldehydes react under these conditions... 

Aryl bromides were also perfluoroethylated under these conditions [205] The key to improved yields was the azeotropic removal of water from the sodium perfluoroalkylcarboxylate [205] Partial success was achieved with sodium hepta-fluorobutyrate [204] Related work with halonaphthalene and anthracenes has been reported [206 207] The main limitation of this sodium perfluoroalkylcarboxylate methodology is the need for 2 to 4 equivalents of the salt to achieve reasonable yields A trifluoromethylcopper solution can be prepared by the reaction of bis(tri-fluoromethyl)mercury with copper powder in /V-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) at 140 °C [208] (equation 138) or by the reaction of N-trifluoromethyl-A-nitro-sotnfluoromethane sulfonamide with activated copper in dipolar aprotic solvents [209] This trifluoromethylcopper solution can be used to trifluoromethylate aro matic [209], benzylic [209], and heterocyclic halides [209]... 

Hearing conservation Electrical safety-related work practices... 

For summaries of Sheehan s penicillin synthesis and related work, see (a) Fleming, I. Selected Organic Syntheses A Guidebook for Organic Chemists, John Wiley Sons New York, 1973, p. 80 (b) Johnson, F. In The Total Synthesis of Natural Products, Vol. 1, ApSimon, J., Ed., Wiley-Interscience New York, 1973, p. 331 (c) Holden, K.G. In Chemistry and Biology of f-Lactam Antibiotics, Morin, R.B. Gorman, M., Eds., Academic Press New York, 1982, Ch. 2, p. 99. 

As an application of this method1S, the preparation of enantiomerically pure piperidine alkaloids ( )-(i )-coniine (3 steps, 72% overall yield) and (-)-(2i ,6S)-dihydropinidine (6) from 5 is described. For related works, see refs 16, 19-29 and literature cited therein. 

In such cases, however, the equation can be combined with the theorem of Maxwell, described in 90. If we consider the real and fictitious isotherms of evaporation, ac and adbec, we have the relation work along real isotherm = icork along fictitious isotherm... 

Most of the energetic materials related work on microencapsulation was done on the high-energy rocket proplnt program around 1960 to 1970 and was classified CONFIDENTIAL or SECRET at the time. Most of the work is now declassified. The refs contain several good reviews of the state of the art, both military and general... 

In related work, the reactions of hydrogen peroxide with iron(II) complexes, including Feu(edta), were examined.3 Some experiments were carried out with added 5.5"-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) as a trapping reagent fa so-called spin trap) for HO. These experiments were done to learn whether HO was truly as free as it is when generated photochemically. The hydroxyl radical adduct was indeed detected. but for some (not all) iron complexes evidence was obtained for an additional oxidizing intermediate, presumably an oxo-iron complex. 

Several examples of [5C+1S] cycloaddition reactions have been described involving in all cases a 1,3,5-metalahexatriene carbene complex as the C5-syn-thon and a CO or an isocyanide as the Cl-synthon. Thus,Merlic et al. described the photochemically driven benzannulation of dienylcarbene complexes to produce ortho alkoxyphenol derivatives when the reaction is performed under an atmosphere of CO, or ortho alkoxyanilines when the reaction is thermally performed in the presence of an isonitrile [111] (Scheme 63). In related works, Barluenga et al. carried out analogous reactions under thermal conditions [36a, c, 47a]. Interestingly, the dienylcarbene complexes are obtained in a first step by a [2+2] or a [3S+2C] process (see Sects. 2.3 and 2.5.1). Further reaction of these complexes with CO or an isonitrile leads to highly functionalised aromatic compounds (Scheme 63). 

Toolbox is immediately followed by a related worked Example. 

Cell suspensions which were exposed to 1.0 ppm zinc were combined, and to this matrix known amounts of Zn were added, to allow measurement of the amount of zinc accumulated by the cells via GFAA. In related work, cells treated with known concentrations of zinc solutions were systematically combined and thereby "diluted" with cells not exposed to zinc, to determine If GFAA and EMI analyses yield confirmatory results. 

To obtain an increased intrinsic capacity to transgress biological membranes, a number of different modifications have been introduced to PNA. These modifications include conjugation of PNA to Hpophilic moieties [51, 97, 98], conjugation of PNA to certain so-caUed ceU-penetrating peptides [49, 55, 56, 66, 99-102] and conjugation to different moieties, which are supposed to be internahzed by specific cellular receptors [48, 103-105]. The work on cellular dehvery of PNA is, like the related work on ex vivo and in vivo effects of PNA, very difficult to summarize conclusively. First of all, the pronounced diversity of the reporter systems employed makes it impossible to directly compare the studies. Secondly, the widespread use of fluorescence studies in spite of the many inherent pitfalls of this technique makes it sometimes difficult to judge even qualitatively whether a presented result actually indicates cellular uptake. We have recently published a comprehensive review on cellular dehvery of PNA [82], with a more detailed assessment of the PNA dehvery hterature. 

Recent related work by another group T. Bando, a. Narita, I. Saito, H. Sugiya-MA, Chem. Eur.J. 2002, 8, 4781. 

In a related work, the same authors present an expeditious synthesis of functionalized dihydronaphtofurans starting from dihydronaphtodioxines and stabilized phosphonium ylides [39]. 

This review covers primarily the results of intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions reported by us in the past 15 years in perspective to closely related work by others. 

Related work in the mathematics literature makes the point in a different way by regarding the barrier as a topological obstruction to the construction of a... 

Takahashi et al. [220] first reported the formation of Bi-Te alloy films with varying chemical composition by means of cathodic electrodeposition from aqueous nitric acid solutions (pH 1.0-0.7) containing Bi(N03)3 and Te02. The electrodeposition took place on Ti sheets at room temperature under diffusion-limited conditions for both components. In a subsequent work [221], it was noted that the use of the Bi-EDTA complex in the electrolyte would improve the results, since Bi " is easily converted into the hydrolysis product, Bi(OH)3, a hydrous polymer, thus impairing the reproducibility of electrodeposition. The as-produced films were found to consist of mixtures of Te and several Bi-Te alloy compounds, such as Bi2Tc3, Bi2+xTe3 x, Bi Tee, and BiTe. Preparation of both n- and p-type Bi2Te3 was reported in this and related works [222]. 

It was concluded from this and related works that suppression of the photodissolution of n-CdX anodes in aqueous systems by ions results primarily from specific adsorption of X at the electrode surface and concomitant shielding of the lattice ions from the solvent molecules, rather than from rapid annihilation of photogenerated holes. The prominent role of adsorbed species could be illustrated, by invoking thermodynamics, in the dramatic shift in CdX dissolution potentials for electrolytes containing sulfide ions. The standard potentials of the relevant reactions for CdS and CdSe, as well as of the sulfide oxidation, are compared as follows (vs. SCE) [68] ... 

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