Commercial production commercialization

Commercial Products. Commercial one-component products include Calsilit (Kabe Karl Bubenhofer) Caparol-Sylitol (Deutsche Amphibolin Werke) Color-Silikatfarbe (Sikkens) Granital/Biosil (Keim Farben) Kieselit (Henkel) and Silin (van Baerle). Two-component products include Purkristalat (Keim Farben) and Silin (van Baerle). 

Crude chlorophyll is prepared commercially from alfalfa meal or nettles by extraction with alcohol and partition into benzene. It is used as a colouring matter, particularly for foods and pharmaceutical products. 

Crystallizes from water in large colourless prisms containing 2H2O. It is poisonous, causing paralysis of the nervous system m.p. 101 C (hydrate), 189°C (anhydrous), sublimes 157°C. It occurs as the free acid in beet leaves, and as potassium hydrogen oxalate in wood sorrel and rhubarb. Commercially, oxalic acid is made from sodium methanoate. This is obtained from anhydrous NaOH with CO at 150-200°C and 7-10 atm. At lower pressure sodium oxalate formed from the sodium salt the acid is readily liberated by sulphuric acid. Oxalic acid is also obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of citric acid and by the oxidation of carbohydrates with nitric acid in presence of V2O5. 

A mixture of polymethylene glycols of the type (CH20) ,xH20 where n is 6- 50. It is a white, amorphous powder having the odour of meth-anal, m.p. I20-130°C. The commercial product contains 95% methanal and is obtained in while flocculent masses when solutions of methanal are evaporated or allowed to stand. When heated it is converted to methanal. Used as a convenient solid substitute for methanal. 

CgH,oN20. Colourless crystalline solid, m.p. 121 °C. Made by reacting phenylhydrazine with ethyl acrylate to obtain the hydrazide which cyclizes to the product. Its major commercial importance is as a photographic developing agent, being used particularly in conjunction with hydroquinone. 

CaH803. Fine white needles, m.p. 82°C, b.p. 285°C, strong vanilla odour, characteristic taste. It occurs extensively in nature, and is the odoriferous principle of the vanilla pod it can be obtained from the glucoside coniferin. Vanillin is made commercially from the ligno-sulphonic acid obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of wood pulp. It is one of the most important flavouring and perfuming... 

Moreover, certain commercial products should meet specifications including those for fractions distilled at certain temperatures. 

Figure 5.5 can be used to place the different product streams with respect to the objectives required for commercial octane numbers for Eurosuper and Superplus. It is clearly evident that the preparation of Superplus (RON 98, MON 88) will require careful screening of its components. 

The distillation initial and end points are not specified because their determination is not very accurate the values obtained for commercial products are found to be between 160 and 180°C for the initial point and between 350 and 385°C for the end point. 

The luminometer index (ASTM D 1740) is a characteristic that is becoming less frequently used. It is determined using the standard lamp mentioned above, except that the lamp is equipped with thermocouples allowing measurement of temperatures corresponding to different flame heights, and a photo-electric cell to evaluate the luminosity. The jet fuel under test is compared to two pure hydrocarbons tetraline and iso-octane to which are attributed the indices 0 and 100, respectively. The values often observed in commercial products usually vary between 40 and 70 the official specification is around 45 for TRO. 

LPG is divided into two types of products commercial propane and commercial butane, each stored as liquid at ambient temperature and corresponding vapor pressure. 

The specifications require a maximum Conradson Carbon of 0.35%. This limit is very easily met in fact the values obtained on commercial products rarely exceed 0.1%. On the other hand, for heavy fuels, the Conradson Carbon can often reach 5 to 10%, as we will show later. 

The tendency of the color to become darker with time is often indicative of chemical degradation. The test is conducted with the aid of a colorimeter (NF T 60-104 and ASTM D 1500) and by comparison with colored glass standards. The scale varies from 0.5 to 8. The French specifications stipulate that diesel fuel color should be less than 5, which corresponds to an orange-brown tint. Generally, commercial products are light yellow with indices from 1 to 2. 

Until 1992, the total sulfur content of jet fuel was limited to 0.2 wt. %. Starting in 1993, a reduction to 0.1% was instituted apparently without major incident since for commercial products, lower levels (to 500 ppm) had been observed very often. 

The French specification for sulfur in all types of gasolines —regular, premium, with or without lead— is 0.1% maximum, that is, 1000 ppm. This value is easily achieved because in the majority of commercial products, the content is less than 500 ppm. 

They are classified apart in this text because their use differs from that of petroleum solvents they are used as raw materials for petrochemicals, particularly as feeds to steam crackers. Naphthas are thus industrial intermediates and not consumer products. Consequently, naphthas are not subject to governmental specifications, but only to commercial specifications that are re-negotiated for each contract. Nevertheless, naphthas are in a relatively homogeneous class and represent a large enough tonnage so that the best known properties to be highlighted here. 

For each category of petroleum products, either governmental or customs specifications or standards for characteristics generally exist, but sometimes there may be nothing but those conditions usually required in commercial contracts. 

Product Characteristics Commercial butane Commercial propane LPG motor fuel (from NF EN 589) (see AFNOR document M 40-003)... 

Products that have been the most widely used are organo-metallic compounds and especially the lead derivatives that have been commercialized since 1920. 

Other products such as butadiene and styrene copolymers have been commercialized. 

However, this conventional method presents a certain number of limitations. In the first place, the traditional end-use property itself can be difficult to determine. Consider the cetane number for example is it a good characterization of diesel fuel with respect to its behavior in commercial diesel engines In the second place, concern for protecting the environment imposes new specifications which are often specifications linked to the composition of products very low content of certain contaminants, reduced levels of certain families of compounds, or even a specific compound as already discussed. 

The production phase commences with the first commercial quantities of hydrocarbons ( first oil ) flowing through the wellhead. This marks the turning point from a cash flow point of view, since from now on cash is generated and can be used to pay back the prior investments, or may be made available for new projects. Minimising the time between the start of an exploration campaign and first oil is one of the most important goals in any new venture. 

Introduction and commercial application Safety and the environment have become important elements of all parts of the field life cycle, and involve all of the technical and support functions in an oil company. The Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea in 1988 has resulted in a major change in the approach to management of safety of world-wide oil and gas exploration and production activities. Companies recognise that good safety and environmental management make economic sense and are essential to guaranteeing long term presence in the industry. 

Some natural gases contain high H2S contents above 30% in some Canadian producing wells, where the sulphur is recovered from the product stream and is sold commercially. 

Introduction and Commercial Application The reservoir and well behaviour under dynamic conditions are key parameters in determining what fraction of the hydrocarbons initially in place will be produced to surface over the lifetime of the field, at what rates they will be produced, and which unwanted fluids such as water are also produced. This behaviour will therefore dictate the revenue stream which the development will generate through sales of the hydrocarbons. The reservoir and well performance are linked to the surface development plan, and cannot be considered in isolation different subsurface development plans will demand different surface facilities. The prediction of reservoir and well behaviour are therefore crucial components of field development planning, as well as playing a major role in reservoir management during production. 

Introduction and Commercial Application Section 8.0 considered the dynamic behaviour in the reservoir, away from the influence of the wells. However, when the fluid flow comes under the influence of the pressure drop near the wellbore, the displacement may be altered by the local pressure distribution, giving rise to coning or cusping. These effects may encourage the production of unwanted fluids (e.g. water or gas instead of oil), and must be understood so that their negative input can be minimised. 

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